Early African Civilizations

As the Sahara desert began to dominate northern Africa, some ancient people were pushed east toward the Nile. The people who settled along the northern portion of the river would become the Egyptians. Farther south along the river another civilization developed that would trade and interact closely with Egypt, and that would eventually be conquered by and absorbed into it. This region was known as Nubia and today it lies partly in the nation of Egypt and the nation of Sudan.

Nubia was home to civilizations that enjoyed considerable wealth and influence, like the kingdoms of Kerma and Kush. Because of their proximity to and interactions with Egypt, Nubians built structures and observed customs similar to those of their northern neighbors: pyramids, extravagant tombs for their deceased rulers, similar hieroglyphs, etc. At different times, Egyptian pharaohs conquered Kush, and Kush kings conquered and ruled Egypt.

Another formidable kingdom, called Aksum, or Axum, would emerge south of Nubia. Located along the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden in modern-day Ethiopia, the kingdom of Aksum eventually extended into the Arabian peninsula. This region is hilly and rugged, which led to the evolution of terrace farming. Farmers would break up slopes with step-like, leveled plots that could support crops without soil running off with the rain. Because of its valuable position on the Red Sea, Aksum became a wealthy trading center

Traders would travel to Aksum from the interior of Africa, Egypt, Persia, Arabia, and even India and the Roman Empire. The junction of so many diverse people led to the development of a unique culture, incorporating influences of Asian and European art and language with that of native African traditions.

Further west along the Mediterranean coast was a group known as the “Libyans” or “Berbers”. (Today, the term Berber denotes an ethnic identity, while Libyan has become a nationality.) The Libyans occupied areas of northwest Africa and historically lived as clans in farming villages. As the large-scale civilizations rose to the east and began to push westward, groups of Libyans were motivated to team up in an effort to retain their territory and way of life. This unity allowed for the development of large militaries, and eventually, centralized and organized governments. By about 220 BCE there were three major Berber kingdoms - Mauretania, the Masaesyli, and the Massyli. The latter two kingdoms would eventually unite to form the kingdom of Numidia, which would interact heavily with Rome, Greece, and other major civilizations.

South of the mighty Sahara desert, many other civilizations were developing cultures and products of their own. One culture of interest that developed in modern-day Nigeria was that of the Nok. These people were skilled at working with iron by 500 BCE, using it to create weapons for hunting and tools for farming. The Nok civilization also had skilled sculptors, some of whose artistic works of terracotta, a baked clay, have survived to this day. Archaeologists have also discovered remnants of decorated pottery. Evidence suggests the Nok people disappeared or migrated by about 200 CE.

The oldest known city to spring up south of the Sahara is known as Djenn’e-Djeno in modern-day Mali. Located on part of the Niger River, the site of Djenne-Djeno has provided ample evidence of a bustling West African city, home to up to 50,000 people at its peak! Like the people of Nok, citizens of Djenne-Djeno knew how to work with iron. They also cultivated rice, fished, and produced pottery. This city was strategically located on the river, allowing for trade with other towns. They traded extensively for salt, copper, and gold. The oldest artifacts date to 250 BCE and we know the city was inhabited until after 1400 CE.

Ancient inhabitants of Nigeria and Cameroon gradually migrated south and east, spreading their culture. This started around the beginning of the first century CE> These people spoke a common language called Bantu but otherwise were of different backgrounds and traditions. We can trace their migration by studying similar linguistic characteristics among modern African languages. As the Bantu-speaking people moved south, they brought their practices, including slash-and-burn agriculture, herding goats, and sheep, and iron smelting. They adapted skills they had already mastered to the unique challenges of the areas where they settled.

They were introduced to new crops, like bananas, and started raising cattle Because of their own use of iron weapons, they could easily defend themselves from other tribes they encountered, like the Mbuti and San people who were largely hunters and still used stone tools. Along the way, groups would break off and settle into new villages, mixing and intermarrying with members of other tribes and settlements, giving rise to unique cultures and languages that still exist throughout Africa today.