Terms to know

Civil Liberties: Constitutional protections against government actions (e.g., Bill of Rights).

Due Process of Law: Government must follow fair procedures before depriving life, liberty, or property (5th & 14th Amendments).

Free Exercise Clause: Right to practice religion freely (1st Amendment), with some limitations.

Right to Privacy: Not explicitly stated; derived from “penumbras” in several amendments (1st, 3rd, 4th, 5th, 9th, 14th).

“Clear and Present Danger”: Doctrine (from Schenck) allowing speech to be restricted if it presents immediate danger.

Establishment Clause: Government cannot establish an official religion or favor one (1st Amendment).

Miranda Rights: Rights read to criminal suspects (right to remain silent, right to an attorney).

Selective Incorporation: Applying the Bill of Rights to the states gradually via the 14th Amendment’s Due Process Clause.

Double Jeopardy: Prohibits being tried twice for the same offense (5th Amendment).

Exclusionary Rule: Illegally obtained evidence cannot be used in court (4th Amendment).

Prior Restraint: Government action preventing material from being published; largely unconstitutional (New York Times Co. v. U.S.).

Symbolic Speech: Nonverbal communication (e.g., armbands, burning flags) protected by the 1st Amendment.

Affirmative Action: Policies to address past discrimination by giving advantages to underrepresented groups.

De Facto Segregation: Segregation based on custom or practice (not officially sanctioned by law).

De Jure Segregation: Segregation enforced by law.

Grandfather Clause: Allowed those whose ancestors voted before a certain date to skip voter requirements; aimed to disenfranchise Black voters.

Title IX (Title 9): Prohibits sex-based discrimination in federally funded education programs.

Civil Rights: Protections from discrimination (equal treatment under law).

Jim Crow Laws: State/local laws enforcing racial segregation in the South.

“Separate but Equal” Doctrine: Established by Plessy v. Ferguson (1896); later overturned by Brown v. Board.

Literacy Test: Used to disenfranchise Black voters by imposing unfair testing standards.

Equal Protection Clause (14th Amendment): Prohibits states from denying any person equal protection of the laws.

Poll Tax: Fee required to vote; used to prevent Black citizens and poor people from voting.

White Primary: Primary elections in which only white voters were allowed to participate.