ap human geography unit 1

AP Human Geography: Geography: Its Nature and Perspectives Review Notes

Map Projections

  • Map Projections: Methods used to represent the curved surface of the Earth on a flat surface. Key characteristics:

    • Size (Area): The representation of area may be distorted.

    • Shape: The forms and outlines of landmasses can be altered.

    • Direction: The accuracy of compass directions can be affected.

    • Distance: The measurement of distance can be distorted.

  • Types of Map Projections:

    • Mercator: Preserves angles but distorts size; useful for navigation but enlarges areas at the poles.

    • Molleweide: An equal-area projection, useful for displaying global data but distorts shape.

    • Robinson: Tries to balance all distortions, providing a visually pleasing representation.

    • Peters: Equal-area projection focusing on representing land sizes correctly.

    • Fuller: A dymaxion map that preserves shape and size while distorting direction.

    • Goode's Homolosine: An interrupting projection that minimizes distortion of area but distorts shape.

  • Early Influences:

    • Erathosthenes: Known for calculating the Earth's circumference and for coining the term 'geography'.

    • Ptolemy: Influential in the development of cartography, used a grid system for map making.

    • Explorers: Their findings significantly advanced geographical knowledge and mapping techniques.

Thematic Maps

  • Thematic Maps: Specialized maps focusing on a particular theme or subject matter. Types include:

    • Proportional Symbol: Uses symbols of varying sizes to represent data values.

    • Cartogram: A map where the size of regions is resized according to a specific data variable.

    • Choropleth: Uses different shades or colors to indicate data density in specific areas.

    • Dot-Density: Uses dots to represent the occurrence of a phenomenon.

    • Flow-line: Depicts movement between locations with arrows showing direction and volume.

    • Isoline: Lines that connect points of equal value (e.g., temperature).

Mental Mapping

  • Mental Mapping (Cognitive Maps): Individuals' personal interpretations and visualizations of places which may not reflect the actual geographic reality.

Map Scale

  • Map Scale: Refers to the relationship between distance on a map and distance in the real world. Key types:

    • Large Scale: Represent small areas with great detail.

    • Small Scale: Represents large areas with less detail.

  • Geographic Scale: Refers to the level of detail and the geographical extent of a map, ranging from local to global.

Latitude and Longitude (Global Grid)

  • Latitude and Longitude: The system for determining locations on the Earth’s surface.

    • Meridians (longitude): Lines running from North to South, measuring the angle east or west of the Prime Meridian.

    • Parallels (latitude): Lines running East to West, measuring the angle north or south of the Equator.

    • Time Zones: Based on longitudinal divisions of the Earth, effecting local time based on the position of the sun.

Remote Sensing

  • Remote Sensing: The acquisition of information about an object or area from a distance, typically using satellite or aerial imagery.

    • GIS (Geographic Information Systems): Technology that captures, stores, analyses, and presents spatial or geographic data.

    • GPS (Global Positioning System): Satellite-based system for determining precise location on Earth.

    • Computer Imagery – Visualizations: Digital images created from spatial data for analysis and interpretation purposes.

Place

  • Place: The concepts that define specific locations, encompassing both physical and human components.

    • Sense of Place: Emotional attachment or feelings associated with a location.

    • Location: The position of something in physical space.

    • Toponym: The name given to a specific location, often reflecting historical and cultural significance.

    • Relative Location: Describes a place in relation to other locations (e.g., "next to").

    • Absolute Location: Exact coordinates or a fixed point (e.g., latitude and longitude).

    • Site vs. Situation:

    • Site: The physical characteristics of a place (e.g., terrain, soil type).

    • Situation: The location of a place relative to other places and human activities.

Cultural Ecology

  • Cultural Ecology: The study of the relationships between people and their environment, examining how cultural practices adapt to environmental challenges.

  • Environmental Determinism vs. Possibilism:

    • Environmental Determinism: The theory that the physical environment predisposes societies towards certain development paths.

    • Possibilism: Critiques environmental determinism by emphasizing human agency and choice in how to adapt to environmental factors.

Spatial Interaction/Perspective/Analysis

  • Spatial Interaction: The relationship between different places based on social, economic, political or environmental factors.

  • Key Concepts:

    • Connectivity: The degree to which locations are connected with one another.

    • Complementarity: The relationship between two locations that enhances their mutual benefits, often in trade or resource exchange.

    • Accessibility: How easily a location can be reached from other locations.

    • Transferability: The cost associated with the movement of goods and the ease with which they can be transported.

  • Qualitative vs. Quantitative:

    • Qualitative: Focuses on understanding qualities and characteristics based on subjective information.

    • Quantitative: Involves measurement and analysis of numbers and statistics.

  • Idographic vs. Nomothetic:

    • Idographic: The study of unique features of particular systems or regions.

    • Nomothetic: Focuses on establishing general laws from study of various cases.

  • Key Figures:

    • George Perkins Marsh: Early American geographer known for his work on human-environment interactions and conservation.

    • WD Pattison: Known for discussing the four traditions of geography including spatial, area studies, man-land, and earth science.

Landscapes

  • Landscapes: Different forms of geographic spaces shaped by human and natural influences.

    • Carl Sauer: A key figure in cultural geography known for his concepts surrounding the interpretations of cultural landscapes.

    • Types of Landscapes:

    • Cultural: Areas modified and influenced by human activities.

    • Natural: Physical features of the landscape that are unaltered by human actions.

    • Symbolic: Landscapes that hold significant meaning to cultures, often used for identity and representation.

Regionalization vs. Globalization

  • Regionalization: The process of dividing an area into smaller, manageable pieces, often for administrative or economic purposes.

  • Globalization: The increasing interconnectedness and interdependence of world economies, cultures, and populations due to trade, communication, and travel.

Regions

  • Regions: Areas that share common features.

    • Formal (Uniform) Regions: Areas defined by a common characteristic or set of characteristics (e.g., language, culture).

    • Functional (Nodal) Regions: Areas defined by a function or activity, typically having a central node (e.g., metropolitan areas).

    • Vernacular (Perceptual) Regions: Areas characterized by informal titles based on perceptions and opinions of people (e.g., Dixie)

  • Regions of the World: Various classifications based on geographic, cultural, and political criteria.

Diffusion (Cultural Diffusion)

  • Diffusion: The process through which cultural elements spread from one area or population to others.

    • Hearth: The original area from which a cultural trait or innovation develops.

    • Types of Diffusion:

    • Relocation Diffusion: The spread of a cultural trait through the physical movement of people.

    • Expansion Diffusion:

      • Hierarchical: Spread from larger, influential nodes to smaller ones (e.g., fashion trends).

      • Contagious: Spread through direct contact, affecting nearby individuals or areas (e.g., viral trends).

      • Stimulus: The adoption of underlying ideas or traits from another culture, adapted to fit within the local context (e.g., fast food adapting to local tastes).

Distribution

  • Distribution: The arrangement of features across the Earth's surface.

    • Density: The number of items in a given area. Types include:

    • Arithmetic Density (Population): Total population divided by total land area.

    • Physiological Density: Total population divided by arable land area.

    • Concentration: The spatial distribution pattern; can be:

    • Agglomerated: Closer clustering of features.

    • Scattered: More spread out distribution of features.

    • Pattern: The general arrangement of features. Types include:

    • Linear: Features arranged in a straight line.

    • Centralized: Features clustered around a central point.

    • Random: No specific pattern in the distribution.

Movement

  • Movement: The flow of people, goods, and information among locations.

    • Tobler's First Law of Geography: "Everything is related to everything else, but near things are more related than distant things." Emphasizes the importance of proximity in spatial analysis.

    • Friction of Distance: The concept that the cost (real or perceived) of moving increases with distance.

    • Distance Decay: The principle that the effects of distance on cultural or spatial interactions decrease as the distance increases.

    • Time-Space Compression: The phenomenon where the world feels smaller due to advancements in transportation and communication technologies, reducing the time it takes to move people, goods, and information.

    • Relative Distance: A measure of distance that considers the costs and accessibility, rather than just physical space.

    • Topographical Space: The physical landscape, shapes, and features of the Earth that can influence human interaction and movement.