cognition

Intelligence
1. 1. Theories of Intelligence: Frameworks to explain the nature of intelligence. Examples:
2. • Fluid Intelligence: The ability to solve novel problems and adapt to new situations.
3. • Crystallized Intelligence: Accumulated knowledge and skills gained through experience and education.
4. • Emotional Intelligence (EQ): The ability to understand, manage, and utilize emotions effectively.
5. • Fixed vs. Growth Mindset:
6. • Fixed Mindset: Belief that intelligence and abilities are static.
7. • Growth Mindset: Belief that intelligence can develop with effort and learning.
8. 2. Flynn Effect: The observed rise in average IQ scores over time due to improvements in education, nutrition, and environmental factors.
9. 3. Modern Intelligence Testing: Methods to measure cognitive abilities, often used for educational and clinical purposes. Includes tests for mental age and technological adaptations.
Problem Solving and Decision-Making
1. 4. Schemas: Mental frameworks or concepts that help organize and interpret information.
2. 5. Prototypes: The best example or representation of a concept or category.
3. 6. Algorithms: Step-by-step procedures for solving problems that guarantee a correct solution.
4. 7. Heuristics: Mental shortcuts or rules of thumb that simplify decision-making but may lead to errors. Examples:
5. • The Representativeness Heuristic: Judging the likelihood of events based on how similar they are to a prototype, leading to biases.
6. • The Availability Heuristic: Estimating the probability of an event based on how easily examples come to mind.
7. 8. Functional Fixedness: The tendency to see objects as only functioning in their usual way, hindering problem-solving.
8. 9. Divergent Thinking: A thought process used to generate creative ideas by exploring many possible solutions.
9. 10. Convergent Thinking: Narrowing down multiple ideas into a single, correct solution.
Reasoning and Decision-Making Errors
1. 11. Sunk Cost Fallacy: Continuing with a decision based on previously invested resources (time, money, effort), even when it’s irrational to do so.
2. 12. Framing Effect: The way information is presented affects decisions and judgments.
3. 13. Confirmation Bias: The tendency to seek out information that supports pre-existing beliefs while ignoring contradictory evidence.
Testing Intelligence & Achievement
1. 14. Standardization: Ensuring a test is administered and scored consistently to establish norms.
2. 15. Norms: The average scores established by a representative sample for comparison.
3. 16. Reliability: The consistency of a test over time and across different administrations.
4. 17. Test-Retest Reliability: Stability of test scores over time when the same test is administered twice.
5. 18. Split-Half Reliability: Ensuring consistency within a test by comparing performance on different halves.
6. 19. Construct Validity: The extent to which a test measures what it claims to measure.
7. 20. Content Validity: The degree to which a test assesses the intended content or subject matter.
8. 21. Achievement Tests: Assessments that measure knowledge and skills gained through instruction.
9. 22. Aptitude Tests: Tests designed to predict future performance or potential in a specific area.

23. Stereotype Threat: Anxiety or concern that one’s performance may confirm a negative stereotype about their group.

Let me know if you need clarification or further details on any term!
Here are the definitions of the typed words in the image, presented in a numbered list:
Encoding
* Sensory Memory: The initial stage of memory where information is received through the senses and briefly held.
* Short-Term Memory (STM): A limited-capacity memory store where information is held for a short period (typically around 20 seconds) before being either forgotten or transferred to long-term memory.
* Long-Term Memory (LTM): The relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of memory.
* Hippocampus: A brain structure crucial for the formation of new memories.
* Cerebellum: A brain structure involved in procedural memory and motor learning.
* Amygdala: A brain structure involved in emotional memory.
* Acetylcholine: A neurotransmitter involved in memory and learning.
* Long-Term Potentiation (LTP): A long-lasting strengthening of synaptic connections, believed to be a key mechanism for memory formation.
* Elaborative Rehearsal: A memory technique that involves processing information deeply by relating it to existing knowledge or creating meaningful connections.
* Maintenance Rehearsal: A memory technique that involves repeating information to keep it in short-term memory, but without forming deeper connections.
* Massed Practice: Learning in long study sessions without breaks.
* Distributed Practice (Spacing Effect): Learning in shorter sessions with breaks interspersed, leading to better retention.
* Mnemonic Devices: Memory aids such as acronyms, rhymes, or the method of loci (associating information with locations).
* Chunking: Grouping individual pieces of information into larger units to improve memory.
Storage
* Episodic Memory: Memory for personal experiences and events, including the time and place they occurred.
* Flashbulb Memory: A vivid and detailed memory of a significant or emotionally charged event.
* Procedural Memory: Memory for skills, habits, and how to perform tasks.
* Semantic Memory: Memory for facts, concepts, and general knowledge.
* State-Dependent Memory: The tendency to recall information better when in the same internal state (mood, arousal) as when the information was encoded.
* Mood-Congruent Memory: The tendency to recall memories that are consistent with one's current mood.
* Prospective Memory: Remembering to perform an action in the future.
* Retrospective Memory: Remembering past events or information.
* Serial Position Effect: The tendency to remember the first and last items in a list better than the middle items.
* Primacy Effect: The enhanced recall of items at the beginning of a list.
* Recency Effect: The enhanced recall of items at the end of a list.
* Schemas: Mental frameworks or organized patterns of thought that help us interpret and organize information.
Retrieval
* Recall: Retrieving information from memory without any cues.
* Recognition: Identifying previously learned information when it is presented again.
* Retrieval Cues: Stimuli that help trigger the recall of information from memory.
* Tip-of-the-Tongue Phenomenon (TOT): The feeling of knowing something but being unable to recall it immediately.
* Autobiographical Memory: Memory for personal events and experiences.
* Highly Superior Autobiographical Memory (HSAM): A rare condition characterized by an unusually detailed and vivid memory for personal experiences.
* Explicit Memory: Conscious and intentional memory, such as facts and events.
* Implicit Memory: Unconscious and unintentional memory, such as skills and habits.
* Priming: The activation of existing knowledge or associations in memory by a stimulus.
* Retrieval Practice and the Testing Effect: The phenomenon that retrieving information from memory strengthens that memory.
Forgetting
* Decay: The fading or weakening of memory traces over time.
* Interference: The disruption of memory by other information.
* Proactive Interference: When older memories interfere with the recall of newer memories.
* Retroactive Interference: When newer memories interfere with the recall of older memories.
* Motivated Forgetting: The intentional or unintentional suppression of memories that are unpleasant or threatening.
* Repression: The unconscious process of keeping threatening or unacceptable thoughts and memories out of conscious awareness.
* Infantile Amnesia: The inability to remember events from early childhood.
* Anterograde Amnesia: The inability to form new memories after an injury or disease.
* Retrograde Amnesia: The loss of memory for events that occurred before an injury or disease.
* Alzheimer's Disease: A progressive neurodegenerative disease that causes memory loss and cognitive decline.
* Misinformation Effect: The incorporation of misleading information into memory after an event.
* Imagination Inflation: The increase in the perceived likelihood of an event having occurred due to repeated imagining of the event.
* Source Amnesia: The inability to remember where or how information was learned.
* Constructive Memory: The process of reconstructing memories based on existing knowledge and beliefs.