Untitled Flashcards Set

Developmental Psychology Terms

1. Developmental Psychology – The study of physical, cognitive, and social changes throughout the lifespan, from conception to death. It examines nature vs. nurture, continuity vs. stages, and stability vs. change.

2. Zygote – A fertilized egg, which undergoes rapid cell division for about two weeks before developing into an embryo.

3. Embryo – The developing human organism from about 2 weeks to 9 weeks after fertilization, during which organs begin to form.

4. Fetus – The developing human from 9 weeks after conception to birth. At this stage, bodily structures mature and vital functions develop.

5. Teratogens – Harmful substances such as viruses, drugs, and chemicals that can pass through the placenta and cause birth defects or developmental issues.

6. Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS) – A condition resulting from heavy alcohol use during pregnancy, causing physical deformities, intellectual disabilities, and behavioral problems.

7. Habituation – Decreased responsiveness to repeated stimuli; used to study infant cognition by observing how long they focus on familiar vs. novel stimuli.

8. Maturation – Biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, largely uninfluenced by experience (e.g., walking after crawling).

9. Cognition – All mental activities related to thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating.

10. Schema – A mental framework or concept that organizes and interprets information, helping us understand the world.

11. Assimilation – Interpreting new experiences using existing schemas (e.g., calling all four-legged animals "dogs").

12. Accommodation – Adjusting or creating new schemas to incorporate new information (e.g., learning the difference between dogs and cats).

13. Sensorimotor Stage – Piaget's first stage (birth to 2 years) in which infants experience the world through senses and actions (looking, touching, mouthing).

14. Object Permanence – The awareness that objects continue to exist even when out of sight; develops around 8 months.

15. Preoperational Stage – Piaget's second stage (ages 2-7) in which children represent things with words and images but lack logical reasoning.

16. Conservation – The principle that quantity remains the same despite changes in shape (e.g., pouring the same amount of liquid into different-shaped glasses).

17. Egocentrism – In Piaget’s theory, a child's difficulty in taking another's perspective, common in the preoperational stage.

18. Theory of Mind – The ability to infer others’ mental states (feelings, thoughts, and intentions), which develops in early childhood.

19. Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) – A developmental disorder marked by challenges in social interaction, communication, and repetitive behaviors.

20. Concrete Operational Stage – Piaget’s third stage (ages 7-11), when children gain logical thinking about concrete events but struggle with abstract concepts.

21. Formal Operational Stage – Piaget’s fourth stage (ages 12 and up), in which individuals develop the ability for abstract reasoning and hypothetical thinking.

22. Stranger Anxiety – The fear of unfamiliar people, typically emerging around 8 months when infants recognize their primary caregivers.

23. Attachment – A strong emotional bond between a child and caregiver, forming the basis for future relationships.

24. Critical Period – A specific timeframe early in life when exposure to certain stimuli is crucial for normal development (e.g., language learning).

25. Imprinting – The process by which some animals form strong attachments early in life, as seen in Konrad Lorenz’s studies of ducklings.

26. Temperament – A person’s characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity, largely influenced by genetics.

27. Basic Trust – Erikson’s idea that securely attached children develop a sense that the world is predictable and trustworthy.

28. Self-Concept – A person's understanding and evaluation of themselves, typically developed by age 12.

29. Gender – The social and cultural traits typically associated with being male or female.

30. Aggression – Physical or verbal behavior intended to harm someone.

31. Gender Role – A set of cultural expectations about how men and women should behave.

32. Role – A set of expectations about social behavior in different contexts.

33. Gender Identity – A person’s sense of being male or female, which may or may not align with their biological sex.

34. Social Learning Theory – The theory that we learn gender roles and behaviors by observing others and being rewarded or punished.

35. Gender Typing – The process by which a child adopts traditional male or female roles.

36. Transgender – A term for individuals whose gender identity differs from their birth-assigned sex.

37. Adolescence – The transitional stage from childhood to adulthood, marked by puberty and identity exploration.

38. Identity – According to Erikson, a person’s sense of self, formed by integrating various roles and experiences.

39. Social Identity – The "we" aspect of self-concept that comes from group memberships (e.g., ethnicity, nationality, religion).

40. Intimacy – The ability to form close, loving relationships, a key developmental goal in young adulthood.

41. Emerging Adulthood – A phase in Western cultures (ages 18-25) marked by gradual independence and identity exploration.

42. X Chromosome – The sex chromosome found in both men and women; females have two, and males have one.

43. Y Chromosome – The sex chromosome found only in males; triggers male sex development.

44. Testosterone – The primary male sex hormone, influencing male traits and reproductive development.

45. Puberty – The period of sexual maturation when a person becomes capable of reproduction.

46. Primary Sex Characteristics – Body structures directly involved in reproduction (e.g., ovaries, testes).

47. Secondary Sex Characteristics – Non-reproductive traits such as breast development, voice deepening, and body hair growth.

48. Menarche – A girl’s first menstrual period, marking the start of fertility.

49. AIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome) – A disease caused by HIV, which weakens the immune system.

50. Sexual Orientation – An enduring pattern of sexual attraction to males, females, or both.

51. Menopause – The biological transition in women when menstrual cycles end, usually around age 50.

52. Cross-Sectional Study – A research method that compares people of different ages at one point in time.

53. Longitudinal Study – A research method that follows and retests the same people over a long period.

54. Social Clock – The culturally preferred timing for major life events (e.g., marriage, retirement).

Key Psychologists in Developmental Psychology

1. Jean Piaget – A Swiss psychologist known for his theory of cognitive development, which proposed four stages: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational.

2. Lev Vygotsky – A Russian psychologist who emphasized social interaction and language in cognitive development. He introduced the zone of proximal development (ZPD) and the importance of scaffolding in learning.

3. Konrad Lorenz – Studied imprinting in animals, demonstrating that certain species form strong attachments to the first moving object they see after birth.

4. Harry Harlow – Conducted monkey experiments on attachment, showing that infants prefer comfort over food when forming bonds.

5. Margaret Harlow – Assisted Harry Harlow in his attachment research, studying the effects of maternal separation in monkeys.

6. Mary Ainsworth – Developed the "Strange Situation" experiment, identifying secure, insecure-avoidant, and insecure-anxious attachment styles in infants.

7. Diana Baumrind – Identified three parenting styles: authoritarian (strict), permissive (lenient), and authoritative (balanced).

8. Carol Gilligan – Criticized Kohlberg’s theory of moral development, arguing that it overlooked female moral reasoning, which emphasizes relationships and care.

9. Albert Bandura – Proposed social learning theory, emphasizing modeling and observational learning; famous for the Bobo doll experiment.

10. Lawrence Kohlberg – Created a three-stage theory of moral development: preconventional (self-interest), conventional (law and social approval), and postconventional (abstract ethical principles).

11. Erik Erikson – Developed the psychosocial stages of development, emphasizing social relationships and identity formation across the lifespan.

12. Sigmund Freud – Proposed the psychosexual stages of development, emphasizing unconscious drives and childhood experiences.

Personality Psychology Terms

1. Personality – An individual's characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting.

2. Free Association – A psychoanalytic technique in which a patient says whatever comes to mind to uncover unconscious thoughts.

3. Psychoanalysis – Freud’s theory that attributes thoughts and actions to unconscious motives and conflicts.

4. Unconscious – A reservoir of mostly unacceptable thoughts, wishes, and memories, according to Freud.

5. Id – The unconscious, primitive part of personality that operates on the pleasure principle, seeking immediate gratification.

6. Ego – The rational part of personality that mediates between the id, superego, and reality; operates on the reality principle.

7. Superego – The part of personality that represents internalized ideals and moral standards.

8. Psychosexual Stages – Freud’s theory of childhood development, including oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital stages, each with conflicts that shape personality.

9. Oedipus Complex – Freud’s theory that boys develop unconscious sexual desires for their mother and jealousy toward their father during the phallic stage.

10. Identification – The process by which children incorporate their same-sex parent’s values into their developing superego.

11. Fixation – A lingering focus on a psychosexual stage due to unresolved conflicts (e.g., an oral fixation might lead to excessive eating or smoking).

12. Defense Mechanisms – Unconscious tactics used by the ego to reduce anxiety by distorting reality.

13. Repression – A defense mechanism that banishes anxiety-inducing thoughts from consciousness.

14. Psychodynamic Theories – Modern theories that emphasize unconscious motives and childhood experiences but move beyond Freud’s strict views.

15. Collective Unconscious – Carl Jung’s theory that all humans share inherited memories and archetypes from our species’ past.

16. Projective Test – A personality test designed to reveal the unconscious by analyzing ambiguous stimuli (e.g., inkblot tests).

17. Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) – A projective test where people create stories about ambiguous pictures, revealing underlying motives and concerns.

18. Rorschach Inkblot Test – A projective test where people describe what they see in inkblots, used to uncover unconscious thoughts.

19. False Consensus Effect – The tendency to overestimate how much others share our beliefs and behaviors.

20. Terror-Management Theory – A psychological theory suggesting that thinking about death triggers anxiety and motivates people to reinforce cultural worldviews.

21. Humanistic Theories – Personality theories that emphasize personal growth, self-awareness, and free will (e.g., Maslow and Rogers).

22. Self-Actualization – Maslow’s highest psychological need; the motivation to fulfill one’s potential after basic needs are met.

23. Unconditional Positive Regard – Carl Rogers’ idea that total acceptance fosters a positive self-concept.

24. Self-Concept – A person’s answer to the question "Who am I?", influencing self-esteem and behavior.

25. Trait – A characteristic pattern of behavior or disposition to feel and act a certain way.

26. Personality Inventory – A questionnaire designed to assess personality traits and characteristics.

27. Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) – The most widely used and researched personality test, originally designed to diagnose mental disorders.

28. Empirically Derived Test – A test created by selecting questions that discriminate between groups, such as the MMPI.

29. Social-Cognitive Perspective – The view that personality is influenced by behavioral, cognitive, and environmental interactions.

30. Behavioral Approach – A personality perspective that focuses on how learning and environment shape behavior.

31. Reciprocal Determinism – Bandura’s idea that behavior, cognition, and environment interact to shape personality.

32. Positive Psychology – The scientific study of human strengths, such as resilience and happiness, to help individuals thrive.

33. Self – The center of personality that organizes thoughts, feelings, and actions.

34. Spotlight Effect – The tendency to overestimate how much others notice and evaluate our appearance or behavior.

35. Self-Esteem – One’s overall sense of self-worth.

36. Self-Efficacy – One’s belief in their ability to succeed in specific situations.

37. Self-Serving Bias – The tendency to perceive oneself favorably (e.g., attributing successes to personal traits but failures to external factors).

38. Narcissism – Excessive self-love and self-absorption.

39. Individualism – A cultural value that prioritizes personal goals and independence over group identity.

40. Collectivism – A cultural value that prioritizes group identity and interdependence over individual goals.

Key Psychologists in Personality Psychology

1. Sigmund Freud – Founder of psychoanalysis, developed theories on the unconscious, id, ego, and superego.

2. Alfred Adler – Introduced the concept of the inferiority complex, emphasizing the drive for superiority.

3. Karen Horney – Criticized Freud’s male-centric theories and argued that social relationships shape personality.

4. Carl Jung – Proposed the collective unconscious and the concept of archetypes.

5. Abraham Maslow – Created the hierarchy of needs and emphasized self-actualization.

6. Carl Rogers – Developed person-centered therapy, emphasizing unconditional positive regard.

7. Robert McCrae & Paul Costa – Developed the Big Five personality traits (OCEAN: openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism).

8. Albert Bandura – Proposed reciprocal determinism and social learning theory.

9. Martin Seligman – Developed positive psychology and researched learned helplessness.