Reconstruction in U.S. History

UNITED STATES HISTORY: AP® EDITION

Topic 5.10 Reconstruction

Quotation by Thaddeus Stevens (September 6, 1865)

  • Quote: "The whole fabric of Southern society must be changed, and never can it be done if this opportunity is lost. Without this, this government can never be, as it never has been, a true republic."

Learning Objective

  • Objective: Explain the effects of government policy during Reconstruction on society from 1865 to 1877.

Postwar Challenges Facing the United States

  • The cessation of the Civil War led to immense challenges for the victorious United States:

    • Rebuilding the Southern economy and society after four years of warfare.

    • Integrating 4 million freed Black Americans into society.

    • Determining the federal government's responsibility in aiding former slaves.

    • Resolving whether former Confederate states should be treated as part of the Union or as conquered territory.

    • Establishing authority: who decides these issues, the president or Congress?

Postwar Conditions

  • Slavery’s Erosion: As the war progressed, slavery diminished, with many African Americans escaping to Union-held areas.

    • Juneteenth: The day (June 19) when the last enslaved individuals in Texas learned of their freedom, became a day of celebration.

    • Most freedpeople lacked financial resources, land, or formal education.

  • Land Distribution Attempts:

    • Union General William Sherman promised "40 acres and a mule" in South Carolina and Georgia, but this was rescinded by President Andrew Johnson, resulting in dispossession of land.

  • Economic Destruction: The South experienced significant losses:

    • Loss of approximately one-third of its livestock (horses, cattle, hogs).

    • Infrastructure (roads, bridges, railroads) was devastated.

    • Despite avoiding mass starvation, chronic food shortages affected many, especially African Americans, leading to health issues.

  • Continued Conflicts: Pre-existing political and economic conflicts persisted post-war:

    • Northern Republicans sought continued economic progress while Southern aristocrats sought low-cost labor for plantations.

    • Freedmen and freedwomen aspired for independence and equal rights; however, limited government beliefs restrained federal action.

    • Little economic assistance was provided to either White or Black Southerners, reflecting a prevailing belief in self-reliance.

Reconstruction Plans
Lincoln’s Approach

  • Abraham Lincoln's View: Held that Southern states constitutionally never left the Union and were thus disloyal minorities, not separate entities.

  • Proclamation of Amnesty and Reconstruction (1863):

    • Offered full presidential pardons to Confederates who took an oath of allegiance to the Union and accepted emancipation.

    • States could be reintegrated once 10% of voters took the loyalty oath and abolished slavery in their constitutions.

    • Aimed to shorten the war and solidify the Emancipation Proclamation.

Congressional Response

  • Wade-Davis Bill (1864):

    • Required 50% of voters in a state to take a loyalty oath and allowed only non-Confederates to vote on new state constitutions.

    • Lincoln pocket-vetoed this bill, demonstrating the tension between Congress and the Executive.

Freedmen’s Bureau (March 1865)

  • Creation and Purpose: Established to assist both Black and White Americans who were destitute after the war.

    • Provided food, shelter, and medical aid.

    • Had initial authority to resettle freedpeople on confiscated lands, but this was overturned by President Johnson's pardons.

    • Greatest achievement was education, establishing nearly 3,000 schools for African Americans.

Andrew Johnson and His Policies

  • Background: Came from humble beginnings and rose in Tennessee politics. He was a Southern Democrat who supported the Union.

  • Johnson’s Reconstruction Policy:

    • Issued his own plan, maintaining Lincoln’s terms with additional provisions for disenfranchisement of former Confederate leaders and wealthy landowners.

    • Pardons were frequently granted, allowing many former Confederates to regain positions of power by late 1865.

  • Vetoes: His contentious relationship with Congress was evident in his vetoes of bills aimed at protecting African American rights, such as:

    • Freedmen’s Bureau Act enhancements.

    • Civil Rights Bill protecting African American citizenship.

Congressional Reconstruction

  • In response to Johnson's policies, Congress initiated Congressional Reconstruction, characterized by stricter measures on Southern Whites and protective measures for freed Blacks.

  • Radical Republicans:

    • Divisions existed between moderates focused on economic issues and radicals prioritizing civil rights.

    • Notable leaders included Charles Sumner and Thaddeus Stevens, who aimed for transformations in Southern society through military governance.

Legislative Achievements
Thirteenth Amendment (Ratified December 1865)

  • Abolished slavery in the United States:

    • Text: "Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a punishment for crime whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, shall exist within the United States, or any place subject to their jurisdiction."

Civil Rights Act of 1866

  • First actions under Congressional Reconstruction to provide legal protection for African Americans, declaring them U.S. citizens and combating Black Codes.

Fourteenth Amendment (Ratified 1868)

  • Key Provisions:

    • Established citizenship rights for all born in or naturalized in the U.S., mandating states to uphold equal protection and due process under law.

    • Disqualified former Confederates from holding office and removed representation penalties for states that excluded eligible voters.

The Election of 1866

  • Johnson’s deteriorating relations with Congress culminated in the 1866 elections, where Republicans secured significant victories, gaining a two-thirds majority in Congress.

Reconstruction Acts of 1867

  • Enacted over Johnson’s veto, these Acts divided the South into military districts under Union control and increased requirements for states' readmission to the Union.

    • Mandated ratification of the Fourteenth Amendment and guarantees for voting rights for all male citizens.

Impeachment of Andrew Johnson

  • Johnson was impeached in 1868, becoming the first president to face such action due to his dismissal of Secretary of War Edwin Stanton without Senate approval.

    • He narrowly avoided removal from office.

Election of 1868

  • Ulysses S. Grant was elected as president with strong Black support, indicating that African Americans were integral to the Republican electoral coalition.

Fifteenth Amendment (Ratified 1870)

  • Prohibited states from denying the right to vote based on race, color, or previous condition of servitude.

Civil Rights Act of 1875

  • The last significant civil rights law during Reconstruction, aimed to ensure equal accommodations in public places.

Political Landscape During Reconstruction

  • Republican-controlled governments in the South faced significant opposition:

    • Composition: Included White Southerners (scalawags), Northern newcomers (carpetbaggers), and freed Black Americans.

    • Legislators: African Americans like Blanche K. Bruce and Hiram Revels held elective office.

Black Communities and Education

  • Freedmen and freedwomen sought independence by creating Black churches, schools, and communities post-emancipation.

    • Black colleges such as Howard and Fisk were established for education and empowerment.

Economic Changes and Struggles

  • Although sharecropping and tenant farming emerged, many former slaves remained economically disadvantaged:

    • Sharecropping often resulted in a cycle of debt for African Americans.

The Decline of Reconstruction

  • By 1877, federal military presence in the South diminished, leading to the end of Reconstruction and the rise of the Redeemers, conservative Democrats who sought to reverse gains made by African Americans.

Compromise of 1877

  • This informal deal allowed Rutherford B. Hayes to become president while withdrawing federal support from Southern Republicans, effectively ending Reconstruction.

Historiographical Perspectives on Reconstruction

  • Failure vs. Success:

    • Various perspectives exist on the effects of Reconstruction, with some historians viewing it as a failure and others as a missed opportunity.

    • The legacy of Reconstruction influenced civil rights movements and the development of African American institutions.

Key Terms by Theme

  • Equality: 13th Amendment, Civil Rights Act of 1866, 14th Amendment, 15th Amendment, Civil Rights Act of 1875.

  • Corruption: Jay Gould, Crédit Mobilier, William Tweed.

  • Political Context: Spoilsmen, patronage, Horace Greeley, Liberal Republicans, Panic of 1873.

  • Reconstruction Initiatives: Radical Republicans, Freedmen’s Bureau, Congressional Reconstruction, Johnson’s Plan.

Reflection Questions

  1. Consequences of Government Policy: Explain the consequences of government policy during Reconstruction on society from 1865 to 1877.

  2. Evaluating Leadership: Discuss how federal actions during Reconstruction compared to those during the Civil War.