Imperialism Rise in Nationalism • During the French and Industrial Revolution, nationalism continued to inspire nations to increase their political and economic power. • Nationalism became the ideal force in the political, economic, and cultural life in the world, becoming the first universal ideology-organizing all people into a nation state. Nationalism Defined • The strong belief that the interest of a particular nation-state is of primary importance. o Nation-State – a state where the vast majority shares the same culture and is conscious of it. It is an ideal in which cultural boundaries match up with political ones. • As an ideology, it is based on the idea that the individual’s loyalty and devotion to the nation-state surpass other individual/group interests. • Exalting one nation’s belief above all others and placing primary emphasis on promotion of its culture and interests, excluding the interests of others. Changing the World through a Nationalistic Vision • The French Revolution significantly changed the political world and how countries govern. • The Industrial Revolution significantly changed the economic world. • The Age of Imperialism (1870-1914) dramatically changed the political, economic, and social world. What is Imperialism? • Imperialism- The policy of extending the rule of authority of an empire or nation over foreign countries, or of acquiring and holding colonies and dependencies. Power and influence are done through diplomacy or military force. Reasons for Imperialism • There are 5 main motives for empires to seek to expand their rule over other countries or territories: 1. Exploratory • Imperial nations wanted to explore territory unknown to them. • The main purpose for this exploration of new lands was for resource acquisition, medical or scientific research. o Charles Darwin • Other reasons: o Cartography (map making) o Adventure 2. Ethnocentric • Europeans acted on the concept of ethnocentrism o Ethnocentrism- the belief that one race or nation is superior to others. • Ethnocentrism developed out of Charles Darwin’s “survival of the fittest” theory. Philosophers used the theory to explain why there were superior races and inferior races. o This became known as Social Darwinism. • Most imperial nations believed that their cultural values or beliefs were superior to other nations or groups. • Believed imperial conquest would bring successful culture to inferior people. 3. Religious • Imperial expansion promoted a religious movement of people setting out to convert new members of conquered territories. • With the belief that Christianity was superior, missionaries believed it was their duty to spread Christianity to the world. • Christian missionaries established churches, and in doing so, they spread Western culture values as well. • Typically, missionaries spread the imperial nation's language through education and religious interactions. 4. Political • Patriotism and Nationalism helped spur our imperial growth, thus creating competition against other supremacies. • It was a matter of national pride, respect, and security. • Furthermore, European rivalry spurred nations for imperial conquest. Since land equaled power, the more land a country could acquire the more prestige they could wield across the globe. • Empires wanted strategic territory to ensure access for their navies and armies around the world. • The empire believed they must expand, thus they needed to be defended. 5. Economic • With the Industrial Revolution taking place during the same time, governments and private companies contributed to find ways to maximize profits. • Imperialized countries provided European factories and markets with natural resources (old and new) to manufacture products. • Trading posts were strategically placed around imperialized countries to maximize and increase profits. o Such places as the Suez Canal in Egypt which was controlled by the British provided strategic choke hold over many European powers. o Imperial powers competed over the best potential locations for resources, markets, and trade. History of Imperialism • Ancient Imperialism 600 BCE-500 CE o Roman Empire, Ancient China, Greek Empire, Persian Empire, Babylonian Empire. • Middle Age Imperialism (Age of Colonialism-1400-1800s) o Great Britain, Spain, Portugal, France, Netherlands (Dutch), Russia. • Age of Imperialism 1870-1914 o Great Britain, Spain, Portugal, France, Germany, Belgium, Italy, Japan, United States, Ottoman Empire, Russia. • Current Imperialism...? o U.S. Military intervention (i.e. Middle East) o Russia’s Invasion of Ukraine. Imperialism Colonialism • Refers to political or economic control, either legally or illegally. • Refers to where one nation assumes control over the other. • Creating an empire, expanding into neighboring regions and expanding the dominance far outside its borders. • Where a country conquers and rules over other regions for exploiting resources from the conquered country for the conqueror's benefit. • Foreign government controls/governs a territory without significant settlement. • Foreign government controls/governs the territory from within the land being colonized. • Little to no new settlement established on fresh territory. • Movement to settle to fresh territory. Age of Colonialism WHEN? • Started around the late 1400s and ended around the late 1700s/early 1800s. WHY? • Primary Reason: European countries, wished to find a direct trade route to Asia (China & India) and the East Indies. o Quicker and relatively more effective than land routes over Asia. • Secondary Reason: Empire expansion (land power) WHO? • Countries involved: Great Britain, France, Spain, the Dutch & Portugal. • Individuals’ knowns as Mercantilists believed that maintaining imperialized territory and colonizing the region could serve as a source of wealth, while personal motives by rulers, explorers, and missionaries could therefore promote their own agenda. o This agenda being “Glory, God and Gold”. Mercantilism • Mercantilism was a popular and main economic system for many European nations during the 16th to 18th centuries. • The main goal was to increase a nation’s wealth by promoting government rule of a nation’s economy for the purpose of enhancing state power at the expense of rival national power. • It was the economic counterpart of political absolutism. Why did mercantilists want colonies? • Mercantilists believed that a country must have an excess of exports over imports. • By colonizing territory, it provided the nation with indispensable wealth of precious raw materials. • Therefore, the claimed territory served as a market and supplier of raw materials for the mother country. Which, in time, provided an excess of exports for the nation and thus created wealth. o Development of Trading Companies to support this economic system. Hudson Bay Company – (1670). Controlled primarily North America. o Dutch East Indie Trading Company (1682) o East Indian Trading Company (1600) o Royal African Trade Company (1672) WHERE? • European nations begun to colonize the America, India and the East Indies to create a direct trade route. • Great Britain was the leading power in India, Australia and North America, South Africa. • Spain colonized central and South America. • French held Louisiana, coastal land of Africa and French Guinea. • The Dutch built an empire in the East Indies. • The Portuguese was able to take control of present-day Brazil and the southern tip of South America and Japan. Age of Colonialism • As countries started to imperialize these regions, eventually the concept of colonization took hold: • This is what makes the Age of Colonialism extremely different! End of Colonialism • By 1800, colonialism became less popular • Why? o Revolutions (Spain, France & American) o The Napoleonic Wars o Struggle for nationalism and democracy. o Exhausted all money and energy to supervise their colonies. Waiting to wake again • Imperialism would stay quiet for close to 50 years before Great Britain and France’s economies revitalized. • The outbreak of the Industrial Revolution only encouraged and revitalized European nations to begin their conquest for new territory and resources. Age of Imperialism THE SCRAMBLE FOR AFRICA 1870-1914 Conditions Prior to Imperialism of Africa  European interest in exploiting Africa was minimal.  Their economic interests & profit in Africa primarily came through coastal trade that took place during the 1500-1700s.  The slave trade became the main source of European profit.  Furthermore, disease, political instability, lack of transportation and unpredictable climate all discouraged Europeans from seeking territory. Slave Trade & the Trans-Atlantic Slave Voyages  Forced labor was not uncommon during the 13-17th Centuries. Africans and Europeans had been trading goods and people across the Mediteranea for centuries.  This all changed from 1526 to 1867, as a new system of slavery was introduced that became highly “commercialized, racialized and inherited”  By 1690, the America and West Indies saw approximately 30,000 African people shipped from Africa. A century later, that number grew to 85,000 people per year.  By 1867, approximately 12.5 million people (about twice the population of Arizona) left Africa in a slave ship. What Changed? 1. End of the Slave Trade- Left a need for trade between Europe and Africa. 2. Innovation in technology- The steam engine and iron hulled boats allowed Europe 3. Discovery of new raw materials- Explorers located vast raw materials and resources and this only spurred imperialism with Europe in the wake of the Industrial Revolution. 4. Politics- Unification of Germany and Italy left little room to expand in Europe. Germany and Italy both needed raw materials to “catch up” with Britain and France so they looked to Africa. The Scramble for Africa  The scramble started in 1870.  Although some coastal land had previously been acquired before 1870, the need for territory quickly accelerated as European countries looked t get deeper into Africa.  Within 20 years, nearly all continents were placed under imperialistic rule. Who was Involved?  Great Britain  France  Germany  Italy  Portugal  Belgium  Spain (kind) Violent Affairs  Violence broke out multiple times when European nations looked to claim the same territory.  Germ Chancellor. Otto van Bismarck. Attempted to avert the possibility of violence against the European powers.  In 1884, Bismarck organized a conference in Berlin for the European nations. The Berlin Conference (1884-85)  The conference looked to set ground rules for future annexation of African territory by European Nations.  Annexation is the forcible acquisition and assertion of legal title over one state’s territory by another state, usually following military occupation of the territory.  From a distant perspective, it looked like it would reduce tensions among European nations and avert war.  At the heart of the meeting, these European countries negotiated their claims to African territory, made it official and then mapped their regions.  Furthermore, the leaders agreed to allow free trade among imperialized territory and some homework for negotiating future European claims in Africa was established. Further Path  After the conference, european powers continued to expand their claims in Africa so that by 1900. 90% of the African territory had been claimed. A Turn towards Colonization?  Upon the imperialization of African territory, European nations and little interest in African land unless it produced economic wealth.  Therefore, European governments put little effort and expertise into these imperialized regions.  In most cases, this emat a form of indirect rule. Thus, governing the natin without sufficient settlement and government from within the mother country. Some Exceptions  There were some exemptions through in Africa as colonization was a necessary for some regions i n Africa.  Some regions where diamonds and gold were present. Government looked to protectorate the regions and establish rule and settlement in the regions.  Protectorates: A state controlled and protected by another state for defense against aggression and other law violations. Would  Some examples include South Africa, Botswana, Zimbabwe and Congo. Conclusion  Although it may appear that the Berlin Conference averted war amid the African Scramble, imperialism eventually brought the world into worldwide conflict.  With the continued desire to create an empire by European nations. World War 1 would break out which can be linked to this quest at imperialism.

Note

Studied by 11 people

4.5(2)

Khan Academy + FiveAble APES U9 Notes

9.1: Stratospheric Ozone

Ozone forms naturally in stratosphere (3 oxygen atoms)
- Stratospheric ozone layer protects organisms and ecosystems by blocking harmful UV radiation
- Naturally forms when UV radiation splits O2 into O atoms that collide and bond with other O2 molecules to form O3
Stratospheric ozone depletion
- When pollutants break down ozone molecules caused by human emissions of ozone depleting substances (CFCs, HBFCs, Halons, nitrous oxide)
  - Can also be broken down by natural phenomena like volcanic eruptions but human’s actions are more harmful
- Thinner ozone layer = more UV radiation = more harmful impacts like skin cancer, cataracts, reduced phytoplankton abundance, lower plant productivity
- Ozone thinning is SEASONAL:
  - Severe in polar regions due to polar stratospheric clouds that accumulate ozone depleting substances
  - Spring in each hemisphere — ozone depleted air moves to lower latitudes and warmer temperatures speed up chemical reactions that help ozone layers recover
Ozone in troposphere (earth’s lower atmosphere) is harmful as it irritates respiratory systems and worsens health conditions, while reducing plants abilities to photosynthesis → lowered crop yields
- Tropospheric ozone formed by VOCs, NOx, and sunlight
Ozone depleting substances include:
- Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) — chemicals that were used mainly in refrigerants, aerosols, and cleaning solvents
  - hydrobromofluorocarbons (HBFCs), halons, methyl bromide, hydrogen chloride
- Nitrous oxide — released through human activities and natural phenomena

9.2 — Reducing Ozone Depletion

Human emissions of ODSs led to substantial stratospheric ozone depletion
Replacing ODSs (Ozone depleting substances) supports natural regeneration of ozone layer
- Some substitutes work well but others have drawbacks
  - HCFCs can still damage ozone layers
  - HFCs (hydrofluorocarbons) and PFCs don’t break down ozone but are greenhouse gases that contribute to global warming
- Other technologies and strategies can also reduce ozone depletion like using pumps instead of aerosol sprays
Montreal Protocol — global treaty signed that aims to phase out ODs
U.S. Clean Air Act — allows the environmental protection agency to regulate ODs with strict penalties for non-compliance
Global efforts led to a 99% reduction of ODS emissions, causing increase in stratospheric ozone but full recovery is not expected until 2050

9.3 — The Greenhouse Effect

Principal greenhouse gases include carbon dioxide, methane, water vapor, nitrous oxide, and chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
Water vapor is a greenhouse gas but it isn’t that significant since it has a short residence time in the atmosphere
Greenhouse effect — process by which energy from the sun is trapped in the form of heat by various types of gases
- Results in the surface temperature necessary for life on earth to exist
- Sun releases thermal and light energy → visible light and UV radiation reaches the earth → some energy absorbed by earth and then re-emitted as lower-energy infrared radiation → energy moves away from earth back into space
  - When infrared radiation sent back to earth’s surface reaches the atmosphere, greenhouse gases trap a portion of the radiation that causes the earth to rise in temperature, holding the energy into the troposphere
Carbon dioxide (has a global warming potential — GWP — of 1) is used as a reference point for the comparison of different greenhouse gases and their impacts on global climate change
- Chlorofluorocarbons have highest GWP, followed by nitrous oxide, then methane
Thermal retention property — gases holding ponto heat at a greater rate than others
- Greenhouse gases have higher thermal retention properties:
  - Carbon dioxide
  - Methane
  - Water vapor
  - Nitrous oxide
  - CFCs

9.4 — Increases in the Greenhouse Gases

Rising sea levels and flooding
- Melting of polar ice caps, ice sheets, permafrost, and glaciers, shoreline erosion
- Temperature of earth’s ocean increases → water expands
Spread of disease vectors
- Diseases previously confined to the tropics spread to the poles: temperatures increase → disease vectors like mosquitos and ticks can survive and reproduce in areas they previously couldn’t
- Warmer temperatures → ranges of host species can shift, bringing them in contact with new populations and allowing for more disease transmission
- Warmer temperatures → changes in distribution and abundance of certain species, disrupting balance of ecosystems and increasing risks of disease outbreaks due to population density impacts
Ocean acidification:
- Increased CO2 from burning of fossil fuels → absorbed in oceans → increases concentration of dissolved CO2 → decreases pH of the ocean, making it more acidic
  - Reduces access to calcium, impacting the ability of some marine organisms to build and maintain their shells and skeletons
Extreme weather events and changing weather patterns
- Increased global temperatures → changes in atmospheric and ocean circulation patterns → affects occurrence of extreme weather events
Loss of biodiversity
- Changes the range of species, leading to species displacement as a pursuit of finding more suitable habits
  - If suitable habits are not available or if they can’t migrate/evolve quickly enough, they can become extinct
- Impacts the availability of water, severity of natural disasters, spread of diseases

9.5 — Global Climate Change

Heating and cooling climate cycles
- Earth naturally warms and cools over thousands of years
- Scientists study ice cores (in antarctica) to track past CO2 levels
  - Air bubbles in ice = “time capsules” of ancient atmosphere
  - Higher CO2 in bubbles = warmer climate in that area
- Earth moves heat from the equator to the poles using air currents and ocean currents that help keep the climate stable
  - Climate change disrupts these currents leading to stronger storms, hotter weather, colder weather, more unpredictable weather
Positive feedback loops at the poles:
- Melting ice and snow → less solar radiation reflected and more solar radiation absorbed → poles warming even faster = POSITIVE FEEDBACK LOOP FOR WARMING
- Positive feedback loops causes
  - Rising sea levels
  - Loss of habitat (polar bears, seals, etc.)
  - Thawing permafrost → methane released → more warming
Rising sea + marine impacts
- Melting ice → more volume to oceans → flooding in coastal cities
- Sea levels make species gain habitat (flooded shelves) and others lose habitat (sunlight no longer reaches deeper water = no photosynthesis)

9.6 — Ocean Warming

Climate change in the oceans
- Ectotherms (fish, amphibians, reptiles, invertebrates) depend on external sources of heat for body temperature: meaning that body temperature of an aquatic ectotherm is very close to temp of surrounding water
  - Warmer ocean waters → organisms facing metabolic stress and can lose ability to metabolize their food/reproduce
Impacts on coral:
- Coral has symbiotic relationship with algae (zooxanthellae): algae have stable habitat and nutrients → provides coral with sugar
  - Algae in coral are sensitive to temperature and cannot live in warmer water → when algae die and are expelled, coral turns white/bleaches → cannot recover
Melting of sea ice → destroys polar habitats and changes habitats globally with sea-level rise and changes to currents

9.7 — Ocean Acidification

Acid formation ^^
Ocean acidification: caused by absorption of excess atmospheric CO2 into the ocean, lowering pH levels
- Due to 200 years of global industrialization, ocean pH levels have dropped by 0.1 pH units (30% increase in ocean acidity levels)
Calcium Carbonate
- CO2 + sea water → carbonic acid → reduction of pH in water → reduces available calcium carbonate in the ocean (needed to help build skeleton/shells of marine organisms)
- Calcium carbonate used to control internal pH and reglate the number of calcium ions in their bodies
Fish physiology (behavior + physiology) is disrupted through acidification, making it difficult for them to interact with stimuli in their external environment
Aquatic plants thrive in a CO2 rich environment, so an excess of CO2 can create eutrophication heavy environment
Pteropods — small pelagic snails that make up the basis for the food chain for a wide variety of animals
- Current predicated acidity levels would dissolve their shells and lead to the collapse of their species, creating a domino effect on the rest of the organisms that rely on it

9.8 — Invasive Species

Invasive species: Species that can live, and thrive, outside of their normal habitats
- Can sometimes be beneficial but are considered invasive when they threaten native species
- Often generalists, r-selected species, and therefore may outcompete native species for resources
- Can be controlled through a variety of human interventions
  - Physical removal: manually removing individuals/entire populations of invasive species
    - hand-pulling, cutting, digging, and trapping
  - Chemical control: pesticides and other chemicals killing/inhibiting the growth of invasive species
  - Biological control: using natural predators, pathogens, or competitors of the invasive species to reduce its population
  - Habit modification: altering environment to make it less suitable for invasive species and more suitable for native species
  - Monitoring and early detection: regularly monitoring new invasive species and taking action as soon as they are detected
  - Public education/outreach: educating public about negative impacts of invasive species and encouraging them to take action to prevent the spread of the species
- Prevention: most effective and cost-efficient strategy for controlling invasive species (strict quarantine regulations, inspections of cargo/vehicles, and regulations on import/trade of live organisms)

9.9 — Endangered Species

Endemic species — species that exist in a specific area and nowhere else in the world
- Have limited range, high habitat, or resource specificity, and low abundance

Classification: any organism can become endangered and are classified by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) into the following categories:
- Extinct (EX) — These species no longer exist and have become extinct
- Extinct in the wild (EW) — survives only in captivity, cultivation, and/or outside the native range, as presumed after exhaustive surveys
- Critically endangered (CR) — these species are at an extremely high risk of extinction in the wild and their population is declining at an alarming rate
- Endangered (EN) — species at a very high risk of extinction in the wild and their population is declining rapidly
- Vulnerable (VU) — meets one of the 5 red list criteria and thus considered to be at high risk of unnatural (human-caused) extinction without further human intervention
- Near threatened (NT) — species at risk of becoming endangered in the near future
- Least concern (LC) — these species are considered to have a low risk of extinction and are not considered endnagered

IUCN’s 5 criteria to classify organisms and assess conservation status:
- Reduction in population (decreased significantly)
- Geographic range (restricted)
- Population size (less than 2500 mature individuals)
- Extremely small population size (less than 250 mature individuals)
- Probability of extinction (analysis that shows the species becoming extinct in the wild at least 20% within 20 years or 5 generations)
Risk Factors:
- How fast species reproduce
  - R-species: reproduces quickly → most babies don’t survive but the species bounces back fast → less risk of extinction
  - K-species: reproduces slowly → babies more likely to survive but takes longer to recover if numbers drop → more risk of extinction
- How well species adapt to change
  - Specialists: live in a small range of tolerance → don’t adapt well to change → high extinction risk
  - Generalists: wide range of tolerance → adapts to change better → lower extinction risks
Overharvesting: when individuals are removed from a population at a rate faster than the population can replace them → leads to population declines and extinction
- Regulations like hunting/fishing restrictions can help overharvesting but in some areas, regulations are not strongly enforced, leading to illegal poaching
Plant/animal trade: represents a serious threat to the persistence of some species
- Lacey Act and Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES): developed to control and regulate the trade of threatened and endangered plants and animals
Endangered species act: federal law in the US that aims to protect and recover species in danger of extinction throughout all or a significant portion of their range
- Administered by the US Fish and Wildlife Service and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) → one of the strongest laws in the world for protecting endangered and threatened species
- Designation of “critical habitat” - species areas that are essential for the conservation of the species, as well as the prohibition of harming the listed species and their trade, including their fur or body parts
- Can restrict certain human activities in areas where listed species live, including how landowners use their land, but had significant success in protecting and recovering endangered and threatened species
Breeding programs + other organizations:
- Institutions (zoos, aquariums, NGOs, research institutions) can serve as education centers while also using animals in breeding programs to rebuild populations of critically endangered species

9.10 — Human Impacts on Biodiversity

Human population growth → more land needed for housing, agriculture, industry → destructions of natural habitats and displacement of native species
- Leads to pollution, overconsumption of resources, and introduction of invasive species, climate change, overfishing, pollution also contribute to loss of biodiversity
HIPPCO (Habitat destruction, Invasive species, Population growth, Pollution, Climate change, and over Exploitation) — major factors causing a decrease in biodiversity
- Habitat destruction: Destruction, fragmentation, or degradation of natural habitats, making it difficult for species to live
  - Caused by urban development, agriculture, and logging
  - Leads to soil erosion, loss of biodiversity, and destruction of indigenous peoples’ ways of life
- Invasive species: non-native species that are introduced and are causing harm to native species
  - Outcompetes native species for resources and spreads diseases
  - Disrupts the ecological balance of the region
- Population growth: increased in human activities that harm wildlife and their habitats, such as urbanization and resource extraction
  - Destruction of natural habitats, habitat fragmentation, overuse of resources
- Pollution: release of chemicals, plastic debris, and other harmful pollutants
  - Impacts different organisms, tourisms, recreation, other activities
  - Impacts human health
- Climate change: changes in temperature, precipitation, and other weather patterns that can make it difficult for species to survive
  - Affects migration patterns, reproduction, and other aspects of animal behavior
- Overexploitation: overuse of natural resources, including the overharvesting of wild animals and plants
  - Leads to population declines + endangerments
Conservation: protecting/managing genetic diversity within species
- Preserving habitats, protecting/managing genetic diversity, promoting sustainable use of natural resources, addressing impacts of climate change
In-situ conservation — restoring habitats and establishing protected areas
Ex-situ conservation — protective custody and captive breeding