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Below is a comprehensive set of flashcards that integrates all of your study materials—from constitutional foundations to the evolution of presidential power, selection processes, approval dynamics, and the interplay between the president and Congress. These flashcards are organized by topic to help you review key concepts and details for your midterm.

A. Constitutional Foundations

1. Pre-Revolutionary Context & Executive Experience

• Q: What role did the English Crown play in colonial governance?
  A: It served as the original executive authority in the colonies. This centralized power raised concerns about limited local autonomy and inconsistent governance.

• Q: How did colonial governors obtain their authority?
  A: They inherited it from the Crown, which often led to tensions over local governance and administrative challenges.

• Q: What anticipated problems emerged from centralized control?
  A: Problems included limited local autonomy and governance inconsistencies that foreshadowed issues with centralized executive power.

2. The Articles of Confederation (1781–1789)

• Q: What were the structural features of the Articles of Confederation?
  A:

  • No centralized executive branch.

  • Delegates were elected by state legislatures (one vote per state).

  • Major laws required approval by 9 of 13 states; constitutional amendments needed unanimity.

• Q: What challenges did the Articles face?
  A:

  • Inability to manage war debts due to lacking executive oversight on fiscal policy.

  • Difficulties in handling foreign policy (e.g., piracy).

  • Domestic disorder exemplified by Shays’ Rebellion.

3. The Constitutional Convention (1787)

• Q: What were the main objectives during the Constitutional Convention regarding executive power?
  A: To define and structure the executive branch and establish methods for presidential selection—balancing between different proposals.

• Q: What did the Virginia Plan propose?
  A: A bicameral legislature based on state population, with a lower chamber elected directly and an upper chamber indirectly.

• Q: How did the New Jersey Plan differ?
  A: It proposed a unicameral legislature with equal state representation and a plural executive (removable by the legislature).

• Q: What was the Great Compromise?
  A: The creation of a bicameral legislature: the House (population-based representation) and the Senate (equal representation per state).

4. The President in the Constitution

• Q: What are the constitutional roles and powers of the President?
  A:

  • Commander in Chief/Head Diplomat: Oversees the military (though only Congress can declare war; treaties need Senate ratification).

  • Chief Executive: Ensures faithful execution of laws, holds appointment powers (Senate confirmation required), and delivers the State of the Union address.

  • Legislative Role: Can sign or veto legislation and recommend laws; uniquely possesses the pardon power.

• Q: What does the document suggest about the balance of power between the executive and Congress?
  A: The Constitution was designed so that executive power was modest and balanced by Congress’s supremacy, as evidenced by the 51 paragraphs in Article I versus 13 in Article II.

5. Compromises Shaping the Executive

• Q: What dual roles were established for the President?
  A: The President was designed to serve both as the military leader (Commander in Chief) and as the chief civil executor (Chief Executive).

• Q: How does the Electoral College reflect early compromises?
  A:

  • It serves as the intermediary between the public and the executive.

  • Its composition (House Representatives + 2 Senators per state) reflects the Great Compromise and historical clauses such as the Three-Fifths rule.

  • If no candidate secures a majority, the House selects the President.

• Q: What is the key takeaway regarding executive power in the Constitution?
  A: The presidency was intentionally designed as a limited office to ensure effective government without undermining congressional supremacy. Yet, modern presidents have evolved into much more powerful figures.

B. Evolution of Presidential Power (Pre-Modern to Modern)

1. The Pre-Modern Presidency (19th Century)

• Q: How were presidential candidates chosen in the 19th century?
  A: Candidates were nominated at national conventions by party delegates, often producing candidates who were military heroes rather than active campaigners.

• Q: What characterized presidential campaigns and administration in this era?
  A:

  • “Front porch campaigns” where the candidate rarely campaigned directly.

  • Reliance on a “cabinet government,” where presidents depended on their secretaries to handle policy and manage party factions.

  • Patronage was key, though politically risky (e.g., President Garfield’s assassination by a disgruntled job-seeker).

• Q: What was the role of presidents during crises in this period?
  A: Their influence was mainly during critical moments such as wars or rebellions rather than routine domestic policy-making.

2. The Transitional Period (Early 20th Century)

• Q: What changes were driven by the Progressive Era?
  A: Rapid urbanization, industrialization, and immigration led to increased demands for federal intervention in social and economic matters.

• Q: How did Theodore Roosevelt transform the presidency?
  A: He championed the “stewardship” theory—actively using executive power to address domestic industrial challenges and assert U.S. power abroad, innovating presidential communication with the “Bully Pulpit.”

• Q: How did Woodrow Wilson contribute to presidential evolution?
  A: Wilson embraced the “rhetorical presidency,” directly addressing the public and Congress, and centralized executive power further—especially evident during World War I.

3. The Modern Presidency (FDR to Present)

• Q: What defines Franklin D. Roosevelt’s impact on presidential power?
  A:

  • He massively expanded federal government involvement through the New Deal in response to the Great Depression (e.g., banking reforms, CCC, WPA, Social Security).

  • World War II further cemented presidential power, especially in foreign policy.

• Q: What are core features of the modern presidency?
  A:

  • Ambitious legislative agendas and direct policymaking through executive orders (e.g., Truman’s military desegregation, Biden’s student loan forgiveness).

  • A vast institutional framework (the Executive Office, including NSC, OMB) that supports presidential decision-making.

  • High public visibility with presidents serving as the central political figure in the U.S.

4. Institutionalization and White House Office (WHO)

• Q: How has the WHO contributed to the modern presidency?
  A: It evolved from a small advisory team into a central policy and coordination hub post-WWII—consolidating control over legislative agendas and policymaking, though it raises issues of transparency and accountability.

C. Presidential Selection Process

1. Historical Nomination Methods

• Q: What was the “King Caucus” system (1800–1830s)?
  A: Party members in Congress selected nominees through a peer-review style process, limiting direct voter involvement.

• Q: How did the Convention System work (1830s–1960s)?
  A: Nominees were chosen at national conventions by state and local party bosses, and the outcomes were often uncertain until the convention itself.

• Q: What led to the modern nomination system post-1972?
  A: The fallout from the 1968 Democratic Convention prompted the McGovern-Fraser Reforms, shifting selection towards delegates chosen by party voters in primaries and caucuses.

2. The Modern Nomination Process

• Q: What is the “Invisible Primary”?
  A: An early phase where candidates build support, secure endorsements, fundraise, and shape public perception before formal elections begin (e.g., Barack Obama’s groundwork in Iowa).

• Q: How do primaries and caucuses function today?
  A: They are state-by-state competitions where candidates vie for delegates—rules vary by state, and on the Democratic side, “superdelegates” play a role.

• Q: What role do national conventions play?
  A: Conventions formally ratify the nominee and serve as major media events meant to unify the party and promote its candidate.

3. The Electoral College

• Q: How is the Electoral College composed?
  A: Each state’s electoral votes equal its total Congressional representation (House + 2 Senators), summing to 538 votes; a candidate needs 270 to win.

• Q: What are key consequences of the Electoral College system?
  A:

  • Winning the popular vote does not always secure the presidency (e.g., 2000 and 2016 examples).

  • Battles often focus on “swing” or battleground states.

  • Early successes in primaries can be crucial ("frontloading") for maintaining a competitive campaign.

D. Presidential Approval and Public Opinion

1. Approval Dynamics

• Q: What general trend do presidential approval ratings follow?
  A: They usually start high during a “honeymoon period” and then decay slowly over the course of the presidency.

• Q: What factors influence presidential approval?
  A:

  • The state of the economy (e.g., employment levels, growth, recession).

  • Response to major events (e.g., terrorism like 9/11 or domestic crises like January 6th).

  • Effective damage control and the ability to capitalize on positive events.

2. Presidential Influence on Public Opinion

• Q: Can a president control public opinion?
  A: Although a president cannot fully control public sentiment, they can influence it by steering events and handling crises effectively, along with actively engaging in public relations.

• Q: How has media coverage evolved in shaping presidential approval?
  A: Whereas 19th-century presidents received minimal coverage except during elections, today a president’s every move is highly visible via television and digital media, which dramatically impacts public opinion.

E. The President and Congress

1. Campaign Promises vs. Legislative Reality

• Q: What does the Affordable Care Act (ACA) example illustrate about campaign promises?
  A: It shows that even strong campaign promises (such as Trump’s pledge to repeal the ACA) can fail in practice once legislative realities—like a crucial Senate vote (e.g., John McCain’s)—come into play.

2. Formal Legislative Roles of the President

• Q: What formal legislative responsibilities does the Constitution assign to the President?
  A:

  • The president can call Congress into special session and deliver the annual State of the Union address.

  • The president has the constitutional power to sign or veto legislation and recommend measures to Congress.

3. Informal Legislative Roles

• Q: What does Neustadt’s view of presidential power emphasize?
  A: “Presidential power is the power to persuade,” highlighting the need for negotiation and personal influence over direct command.

• Q: What is meant by “Going Public” as described by Kernell?
  A: It refers to the president appealing directly to the public to pressure Congress and support their legislative agenda.

• Q: What are examples of unilateral actions taken by presidents?
  A: Executive orders that bypass congressional approval—such as Truman’s military desegregation order (1948) or Biden’s student loan forgiveness initiatives.

4. Strategic Context in Congress-Presidency Interactions

• Q: How does government alignment affect a president’s legislative success?
  A: A unified government (one party controlling both the Presidency and Congress) generally enhances success, while divided government (more common since 1969) complicates governance.

• Q: How do partisan polarization and wartime conditions impact the president’s influence over Congress?
  A:

  • Partisan polarization limits bipartisan cooperation and makes legislative negotiation more challenging.

  • Wartime conditions can temporarily boost presidential power and legislative success.

5. Veto Politics

• Q: What is the significance of the presidential veto?
  A:

  • Veto power is a blunt but potent tool to block legislation it deems unacceptable.

  • Its effectiveness often depends on the prevailing congressional dynamics and partisan alignments.

Final Thoughts

These flashcards draw from all your provided materials to create an integrated and detailed study tool that covers:

• Foundational debates and compromises from the founding era.

• Evolution of the presidency from the 19th century to the modern era.

• Internal party dynamics and selection processes that shape presidential campaigns.

• How approval ratings fluctuate based on events, economic conditions, and media influence.

• The complex interactions between the president and Congress (both formal and informal), including the challenges of fulfilling campaign promises amid legislative realities.

Reviewing these cards will help you see how historical foundations, institutional changes, and modern political dynamics interconnect in the U.S. political system. Feel free to ask for any additional clarifications or deeper dives into any topic!