Interwar Period – Italy Flashcards

Italy During the Interwar Period

Political and Economic Crisis After WWI

• Changes After WWI:

  • Italy entered WWI based on the Treaty of London, promised territories like Trentino-South Tyrol and parts of Dalmatia.
  • Woodrow Wilson opposed some territorial gains in Paris, citing violations against other nations.
  • Italy gained Trentino-South Tyrol, a seat in the League of Nations, and a share of German reparations.
  • Not all demands were met, leading to bitterness and division.
  • Nationalists viewed the outcome as a "mutilated victory."

• Postwar Problems:

  • Inflation: Printing money to finance the war intensified inflation.
  • Unemployment: Rose significantly, leading to strikes.

• Postwar Government:

  • King: Victor Emmanuel III was the head of state (parliamentary democracy).
  • Prime Ministers: Italy had four different prime ministers between 1919 and 1922: Francesco Saverio Nitti (1919-1920), Giovanni Giolitti (1920-1921), Ivanoe Bonomi (1921-1922), and Luigi Facta (February-October 1922).
  • The government was weak and failed to meet Italian demands.

Biennio Rosso (Two Red Years)

• Radical Unionism:

  • Started after the war, especially in industrialized northern cities like Turin and Milan.
  • Factory occupations in the North and land seizures by workers in the South.
  • Growth of Italian Syndicalist and Anarchist unions, increasing socialist support.

• Government Response:

  • The government waited out the unrest, leading to the end of factory occupations.
  • Landowners and factory owners felt unprotected by the government.

• Radicalization of the Left:

  • The Biennio Rosso was a period where a socialist revolution seemed possible.

• Timeline:

  • 1919: Spontaneous riots.
  • December 1919: Socialist protests against the king.
  • April 1920: Piedmontese general strike; socialists debated revolution in Milan.
  • June 1920: Rural worker agitation in the Po Valley threatened harvests.
  • 1920: Sit-down strikes, marking the end of the Biennio Rosso.

• Why the Revolution Failed:

  • Lack of revolutionary effort among socialists, many of whom were moderate.
  • Class divisions: hostility between workers, peasants, and the middle class.
  • Socialists opposing emerging small landowners.
  • Conflict between Socialists and Catholics undermined unity against Fascism.
  • Perception of government inaction during strikes alienated factory workers and landowners.

Rise of Mussolini and Fascism

• Definition of Fascism:

  • Far-right, authoritarian, ultranationalist ideology.
  • Key characteristics:
    • Dictatorship: Power concentrated in a single leader.
    • Militarism: War and struggle as tools for unity.
    • Anti-Democratic: Suppression of opposition.
    • State over Individual: National interests prioritized over individual wellbeing.

• Mussolini’s Background:

  • Born in 1883 in Predappio, Italy.
  • Father was a socialist blacksmith, mother was a schoolteacher.
  • Displayed violence as a child.
  • Moved to Switzerland to avoid military service, joined socialist movements, studied social sciences, and met Lenin.
  • Arrested and deported multiple times.
  • In 1912, became editor of the socialist newspaper "Avanti!".

• Shift from Socialism to Nationalism:

  • Initially opposed nationalism and Italy’s involvement in WWI.
  • Influenced by Marxist ideas that war could unite the country.
  • Lost his position at "Avanti!" and was expelled from the Socialist Party.
  • Founded nationalist newspaper "Il Popolo d’Italia", advocating for WWI.
  • Joined the army and fought in WWI.
  • By 1918, supported the need for a dictator to restore Italy’s strength.

Founding of Fascism and Early Struggles

• Fasci di Combattimento (1919):

  • Militaristic and national movement.
  • "Fasci" derived from the Latin "Fasces" (axe with bundled rods), symbolizing authority.
  • "Combattimento" (combat) reflects Mussolini's belief in struggle.
  • The party won no seats in the 1919 general election.

• Road to Power:

  • National Fascist Party (1921): Won 35 seats in Parliament.
  • Used political strategies and street violence to gain power.
  • In 1922, Fascists violently suppressed a general strike, showcasing their power.

The March on Rome

• Mussolini's Threat (October 24, 1922): "Give us power, or we march on Rome."

  • On October 28, the Blackshirts mobilized towards Rome in four columns.
  • Led by the Quandrumviri leaders:
    • Michele Bianchi (Syndicalist leader)
    • Emilio De Bono (WWI general)
    • Cesare Maria De Vecchi (Politician and colonial administrator)
    • Italo Balbo (Blackshirt leader)
  • Mussolini remained in Milan, awaiting the King's response.

• King Victor Emmanuel III's Decision:

  • On October 29, rejected Prime Minister Luigi Facta’s request to declare martial law.
  • The army did not intervene, allowing Fascists to reach Rome.
  • Mussolini was invited by the King to form a government.
  • Mussolini became Prime Minister of Italy at age 39.

Mussolini's Consolidation of Power

• Gradual Transformation:

  • Mussolini's appointment as Prime Minister in 1922 did not immediately establish a dictatorship.

• Emergency Powers:

  • November 16, 1922: Mussolini gained emergency powers for one year after making a speech.

• Constitutional Changes:

  • By 1923, he reformed the constitution to consolidate control.
  • Acerbo Law (July 1923): Changed the electoral system to guarantee a majority to the party with the most votes, ending proportional representation.

• 1924 Election:

  • Fascists and allies won nearly 65% of votes and 374 of 535 seats.
  • Foreign policy victory in the Corfu incident, violence, and vote rigging contributed to their win.

• Matteotti Crisis:

  • The kidnapping and murder of socialist deputy Giacomo Matteotti, who criticized Mussolini, worsened the political climate.
  • Mussolini used the crisis to justify a single-party state for order and national protection.

• New Measures to Consolidate Power:

  • Fascist Grand Council (December 1922): Established to solidify power.
  • National Security Guard/Blackshirts (January 1923): Paramilitary force loyal to Mussolini, allowing him to control local fascist leaders (Ras).
  • Podesta (August 1925): Replaced locally elected officials with Fascist appointees.
  • Special Tribunal (October 1926): Created to try political cases, enabling arrests and exile without trial.
  • Control of Appointments: Mussolini insisted on complete control of all appointments to the Fascist Grand Council.

Gaining Support and Coercion

• Support from Various Groups:

  • Confindustria (1923): Employer's organization supported Mussolini after he ended tax evasion investigations.
  • Nationalist Party: Merged with the Fascists.
  • Pro-Catholic Policies: Compulsory religious education, banning contraception.
  • Popolari Party: Weakened influence, leading to their dismissal in April 1923 with papal support.

• Coercion and Violence:

  • Ceka (April 1924): Secret force led by Amerigo Dumini, responsible for over 100 killings during the election campaign, including Matteotti’s murder. Inspired by Lenin’s Cheka but less organized.
  • OVRA (1927): Secret police force that suppressed political opponents through internal exile (confino) or detention camps like Ventotene.
  • Imprisonment: Notable political opponents, such as Communist Party leader Antonio Gramsci, were imprisoned.

• Authoritarian vs. Totalitarian:

  • Italy under Mussolini remained more authoritarian than totalitarian, compared to Nazi Germany or Stalin’s Russia.

• Censorship and Propaganda:

  • Censorship: Anti-Fascist newspapers shut down by July 1925; journalists had to register with the Fascist Party from December that year.
  • Non-Fascist Media: Some media, especially those run by the Catholic Church, continued to operate.
  • Romanita Movement: Tapped into the legacy of ancient Rome, portraying Mussolini as a modern Caesar.
  • Fascist Symbols: Roman salute, Roman fasces adopted.
  • Memorials: Massive memorials built to commemorate past military defeats.
  • Newsreels (LUCE): Government-produced newsreels.
  • Sports Successes: Exploitation of sports victories, like the Italian football team’s World Cup wins in 1934 & 1938.
  • Mussolini’s Image: Carefully crafted to project strength and vitality, often shown from a low angle to appear taller.
  • Slogans: Images of Mussolini appeared everywhere with slogans like "Credere, Obbedire, Combattere" (Believe, Obey, Fight).

Fascist Italy: Internal Policies — The Battles

• The Battle for Grain:

  • Goal: Self-sufficiency and balanced trade.
  • Measures: High tariffs on imported grain and financial support to farmers for machinery and fertilizers.
  • Results: Increased grain production and reduced imports, but increased imports of other goods (fertilizer, eggs, meat). Reduction in nutritional density as Italian agriculture was very wheat-focused.

• The Battle for Births:

  • Goal: Increase the population to 60 million by 1950.
  • Measures: Creation of ONMI, loans, subsidies, and tax benefits for married couples. Abortion and birth control outlawed ("crime against the race"), and assistance to single mothers.
  • Results: Policy failed due to decreased birthrate, high infant mortality, and rising abortion rates.

• The Battle of the Marshes:

  • Goal: Improve public health, create jobs, and increase farmland.
  • Measures: Drained marshes to create farmland and reduce illnesses.
  • Reclaimed: Pontine Marshes reclaimed. New towns established: Littoria, Pomezia, Sabaudia, Pontinis, and Aprilia.
  • Results: Only 80,000 hectares reclaimed, less than claimed by the regime.

• The Battle for the Lira:

  • Goal: Fix the Lira at 90 Lire per 1 Pound and control inflation.
  • Measures: Tight control of money supply and wage cuts.
  • Results: Goal achieved in 1927, but devaluation in 1936. Wage cuts reduced the standard of living for workers.

Mussolini’s Economic and Social Policies

• Life in Fascist Italy:

  • Mussolini aimed to shape Italian citizens from birth, ensuring Fascist ideology was unquestioned.
  • Policies influenced education, sports, leisure, and social structures.
  • Schools, workplaces, entertainment, and conversations were monitored.

• Early Childhood:

  • Nursery schools (Asili Infantili) introduced nationalism and loyalty.
  • Children required to salute Mussolini before speaking.
  • Toys, books, bedtime stories, and cartoons promoted discipline and support for Fascism.
  • Songs and rhymes celebrated Mussolini and glorified Italy.

• School Years (6–14):

  • Giovanni Gentile’s Education Reform (1923): Reshaped the school system for Fascist propaganda.
  • Curriculum: Emphasized history, Latin, and philosophy, glorifying Italy’s past while neglecting science and critical thinking.
  • Goal: Produce obedient workers, not intellectuals.
  • Limited Education: Intentionally restricted for most Italians, directed into the workforce.
  • Textbooks: Rewritten to glorify Mussolini and Ancient Rome.
  • Teachers: Required to swear loyalty to Fascism.
  • Classrooms: Displayed Mussolini’s portrait and Fascist slogans.
  • Physical Education: Heavily emphasized to create strong, disciplined citizens.

Fascism in Sports & Leisure

• Sports:

  • Tool for strengthening national pride, discipline, and physical fitness.
  • Hosting and winning the 1934 and 1938 World Cups became propaganda triumphs.
  • Other sports promoted: boxing, cycling, and gymnastics.

• Leisure Activities:

  • Dopolavoro Program (After Work Program): Provided cheap vacations, sports events, and community activities for loyal citizens.
  • Regulated pastimes like theater and hiking to reinforce Fascist ideology.

• High School & University:

  • Designed for a select few.
  • Limited education for most Italians, directed to workforce or military.
  • Elite group studied philosophy, law, and administration.
  • Women were largely excluded, except for teacher training.
  • Strictly monitored universities; professors required to teach Fascist ideology.
  • Limiting education was a way to maintain control.

• Youth Organizations & Public Displays of Strength:

  • Organizations for Boys: Figli della Lupa (toddlers), Balilla (younger children), Avanguardisti (teenagers) – Military-style training.
  • Organizations for Girls: Figlie della Lupa, Piccole Italiane, Giovane Italiane – Trained for roles as wives and mothers.
  • Public Rallies: Large gatherings of youth performing synchronized marches and physical displays.

Adulthood

• Fascism Embedded in Life:

  • Employment tightly controlled, workers required to join Fascist labor unions.
  • Corporate state ensured government oversight of industries.
  • Widespread censorship: books, films, and music aligned with Fascist ideals.
  • Constant praising of Mussolini in newspapers and radio.
  • Monitored conversations: criticism could lead to severe consequences.

• How Fascism Controlled Daily Life:

  • Controlled through education, sports, entertainment, and employment.
  • For many Italians, this control seemed normal.
  • Some saw it as an improvement over previous chaos.
  • Some quietly resisted by seeking knowledge or questioning propaganda.

Mussolini's Foreign Policy and Imperial Ambitions

• Main Aim: Gain territory, especially in Africa.

  • Nationalism: Recreation of a "New Roman Empire".
  • Treaty of Versailles: Italy felt unsatisfied.
  • Economic Benefits: Resources in former Abyssinia (Ethiopia).

• Other Territories:

  • Corfu (1923): Greek island invaded and controlled by Italy for about a year.
  • Fiume: Annexed by Italy after being an independent city-state until 1924, per the Treaty of Rome with Yugoslavia.

• Abyssinia (Ethiopia):

  • Reasons for Interest: Resources, fertile land, gemstones, oil, and it was one of the last states in Africa to not have been colonised.
  • First Colonization Attempt: Failed due to united Abyssinians under Menelik II and tactics such as spreading misinformation and cutting off water supply.
  • Second Annexation: Violent; Italy sent over 500,000 soldiers and recruited from surrounding colonies. Advanced chemical weapons and warplanes were used. General Emilio De Bono was replaced by Pietro Badoglio for slow progress. Addis Ababa was conquered, and Emperor Haile Selassie fled. Victor Emmanuel III was declared Emperor of Abyssinia.

• Italian Support and European Reaction:

  • Racist propaganda was used to portray Abyssinians negatively.
  • European states, especially France and Great Britain, negatively received the war.
  • League of Nations implemented sanctions, strengthening the bond between Italy and Germany.

Annexation of Albania

• Rationale: After Germany’s moves on Austria and Czechoslovakia, Italy aimed to make progress.

  • Prior Advancements: Making Italian mandatory in schools from 1933.

• Invasion:

  • 1939: Italy marched into Albania and delivered an ultimatum to King Zog I, demanding acceptance of Italy’s conquest.
  • King Zog declined a bribe and fled.
  • Albanian parliament voted for unification with Italy.
  • Victor Emmanuel III became the new head of state.

Relations to Other Fascist Countries

• Spain:

  • 1934: Mussolini promised support to Spanish right-wing politicians in case of war.
  • Spanish Civil War (1936): Italy initially delayed support but later supplied ammunition, weapons, and war supplies despite the Non-Intervention Agreement.
  • Secret Treaty: Spain and Italy signed a treaty allowing Italy to construct bases in Spain in case of war with France.
  • Italian Troops: Played a role in Madrid, Malaga, and at Guadalajara.

• Germany:

  • Berlin-Rome Axis (1936): Treaty formed between Italy and Germany; the term "Axis Powers" was later used to refer to countries against the Allied Powers.
  • Pact of Steel (1939): Italy and Germany pledge to support each other in case of war.

Political, Economic, and Social Situation Before WWII

• Political Situation:

  • Anti-Semitic Laws (1938): Introduced in Italy, excluding Jews and revoking their citizenship. Other laws included banning marriage between Jews and non-Jews, preventing Jews from getting an education, transferring Jewish businesses to non-Jews, and banning Jewish immigration.
  • Munich Agreement (1938): Italy joined Great Britain, France, and Germany in agreeing to give the Sudetenland to Germany.

• Economic Situation:

  • Sanctions: After invading Abyssinia, Italy faced sanctions and aimed for self-sufficiency, exporting to countries like Germany.
  • Increased Taxes: To support wars such as the Civil War in Spain and smaller conflicts in Africa.

• Social Situation:

  • National Identity: A top priority; youth groups and social activities were introduced to indoctrinate the Italian youth.
  • Emigration: More complicated, leading to migration from rural areas to large cities. Mussolini tried to stop internal migration.
  • Population Growth: Government incentives; childless people had fewer job opportunities, but measures were ineffective before 1937.

• Geographic Situation:

  • Territorial Expansion: Italy expanded its territory in Africa and Eastern Europe, boosting morale.