Chapter 9: Lifespan Development
Summary of Lifespan Development
Key Concepts
Childhood Influences: The adult we become is influenced greatly by our childhood experiences, as highlighted by William Wordsworth's phrase "the child is father of the man."
Lifespan Development: This field studies how humans grow and change from conception to death. It focuses on three areas:
Physical Development: Growth and changes in the body, brain, motor skills, and health.
Cognitive Development: Involves how we learn, remember, use language, think, and reason.
Psychosocial Development: Relates to our emotions, personalities, and social relationships.
Research Methods in Developmental Psychology
Naturalistic Observation: Watching people in their regular daily environment. This gives insights into their behavior but without control over it.
Case Studies: Detailed analysis of a single person to understand individual changes, though they can be biased and not widely applicable to others.
Example: Sigmund Freud’s study of “Little Hans.” Another example includes “Genie,” a neglected girl who could not speak until later in life.
Surveys: Asking people to report on their thoughts and experiences. These can reach many people quickly but depend on honest answers.
Experiments: Controlled tests to see how one thing affects another. Requires careful setup to relate findings to real life.
Normative Approach to Development
This approach identifies what is considered normal at different ages in various development areas. Norms can help understand child development milestones like walking and speaking, although not all milestones are universal.
Example: Louisa's daughter walks later than Kimberly's son, even though both are within the average walking age.
Issues in Developmental Psychology
Continuous vs. Discontinuous Development: Continuous development happens gradually, while discontinuous development occurs in distinct stages. An example of discontinuous development is when babies suddenly begin to understand object permanence.
One Course vs. Many: Some researchers think all children develop similarly, while others recognize different paths depending on genetics and environment.
Nature vs. Nurture: This debate examines the roles of genetics (nature) and environment (nurture) in shaping who we are.
The Achievement Gap
Refers to differences in school performance among students of various backgrounds. Socioeconomic status greatly affects these differences.
Children from low-income families generally perform worse academically compared to their wealthier peers due to less early language exposure and educational support.
Solutions being implemented include home visits by experts to promote language development and integrated preschool programs to mix children from different backgrounds.
Theories of Development
Psychosexual Theory of Development
Sigmund Freud (1856–1939): Believed personality develops during early childhood.
Key Ideas:
Childhood experiences shape our personalities and behavior as adults.
Development is discontinuous, meaning we go through stages:
Stages: Oral, Anal, Phallic, Latency, Genital.
If a child lacks proper nurturing during a stage, they may become stuck in it.
Contribution to psychology: while many of Freud's ideas aren't supported today, he emphasized that childhood experiences matter in shaping who we are.
Psychosocial Theory of Development
Erik Erikson (1902–1994): Modified Freud's theory, focusing on social aspects of development.
Key Ideas:
Personality development occurs throughout life, not just in childhood.
Development involves resolving conflicts at different stages.
Stages of Erikson’s Psychosocial Development:
Trust vs. Mistrust (0-1 year): Developing trust based on caregiver response.
Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (1-3 years): Learning independence leads to self-esteem.
Initiative vs. Guilt (3-6 years): Kids learn to initiate activities; success fosters confidence.
Industry vs. Inferiority (6-11 years): Children measure themselves against peers to develop pride or feel inadequate.
Identity vs. Role Confusion (12-18 years): Adolescents explore identity; successful identity formation leads to strong self-identity.
Intimacy vs. Isolation (19-29 years): Developing relationships; strong self-concept is needed for intimacy.
Generativity vs. Stagnation (30-64 years): Involves contribution to society and future generations through mentoring.
Integrity vs. Despair (65+ years): Reflection on life; satisfaction leads to integrity, while regret leads to despair.
Key Task | Age | |
|---|---|---|
1 | Trust vs. Mistrust | Birth - 1 year |
2 | Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt | 1 - 3 years |
3 | Initiative vs. Guilt | 3 - 6 years |
4 | Industry vs. Inferiority | 6 - 11 years |
5 | Identity vs. Role Confusion | 12 - 18 years |
6 | Intimacy vs. Isolation | 19 - 29 years |
7 | Generativity vs. Stagnation | 30 - 64 years |
8 | Integrity vs. Despair | 65+ years |
Cognitive Theory of Development
Jean Piaget (1896–1980): Focused on how children's thinking develops.
Key Ideas:
Thinking is central to development, and children think differently than adults.
Schemata: Mental models that help categorize and understand the world.
Two processes of learning:
Assimilation: Incorporating new experiences into existing schemata.
Accommodation: Changing schemata based on new experiences.
Four Stages of Cognitive Development:
Sensorimotor Stage (Birth - 2 years): Learning through senses and actions; develops object permanence (understanding that things still exist even when not seen).
Preoperational Stage (2 - 7 years): Children use symbols and language but struggle with logic and understanding others' perspectives (egocentrism).
Concrete Operational Stage (7 - 11 years): Logical thinking about concrete situations; understand conservation (things can change shape but still be the same amount).
Formal Operational Stage (11 years - adulthood): Abstract thinking and problem-solving skills.
Stage | Age Range | |
|---|---|---|
1 | Sensorimotor | Birth - 2 years |
2 | Preoperational | 2 - 7 years |
3 | Concrete Operational | 7 - 11 years |
4 | Formal Operational | 11 years - adulthood |
Neuroconstructivism
A modern theory connecting neural brain development with cognitive development, suggesting that experiences change how brain connections form.
Sociocultural Theory of Development
Lev Vygotsky: Proposed that culture strongly influences development, including language and thought processes.
Moral Theory of Development
Lawrence Kohlberg: Stressed that moral development progresses through stages like cognitive development.
Heinz Dilemma: A moral dilemma used to assess moral reasoning.
Stages of Moral Reasoning:
Pre-conventional: Morality based on avoiding punishment and self-interest.
Conventional: Morality based on social approval and law.
Post-conventional: Morality based on abstract principles and values.
Explanation of Moral Development Stages
Level | Stage Details | Explanation |
|---|---|---|
Pre-conventional | Stage 1: Obedience & punishment | Children follow rules to avoid punishment. Actions are judged based on the consequences they lead to. |
Stage 2: Individual interest | Children recognize that everyone has different interests and they can act in their self-interest as long as it does not lead to punishment. | |
Conventional | Stage 3: Interpersonal approval | Individuals make decisions based on gaining approval from others. They focus on maintaining relationships and pleasing those around them. |
Stage 4: Authority | Moral decisions are made according to societal rules and authority. Individuals respect law and order, believing that rules should be upheld. | |
Post-conventional | Stage 5: Social contract | People understand that laws and rules are based on social agreements and can be changed for the greater good. They prioritize justice and individual rights. |
Stage 6: Universal ethics | At this stage, individuals base their moral decisions on universal principles of justice and equality, prioritizing human rights over laws and rules. |
Lifespan Development Overview
Key Concepts
Development Continues: From birth to death, humans go through ongoing development.
Three Areas of Development:
Physical Development: Changes in body, brain, and motor skills.
Cognitive Development: How we learn, remember, and think.
Psychosocial Development: How we interact with others and understand our emotions.
Prenatal Development
Stages of Prenatal Development: Germinal, Embryonic, Fetal
Germinal Stage (Weeks 1–2):
Conception occurs when sperm fertilizes an egg, forming a zygote.
The zygote undergoes mitosis (cell division).
Fewer than half of all zygotes survive past two weeks.
Embryonic Stage (Weeks 3–8):
The zygote implants in the uterus and is now called an embryo.
Placenta forms, providing nourishment to the embryo.
Major organs and structures begin to develop.
Fetal Stage (Weeks 9–40):
From 9 weeks, the embryo is now a fetus.
Fetus grows, organs start functioning, and senses develop (e.g., hearing).
By 40 weeks, the fetus is fully developed and ready for birth.
Influences on Prenatal Development
Prenatal Care: Important for monitoring the health of the developing fetus and preventing complications.
Teratogens: Harmful substances (like drugs and alcohol) that can affect fetal development, potentially causing birth defects.
Developmental Milestones in Infancy to Childhood
Physical Development
Newborns typically weigh 5-10 pounds and double their weight in the first six months.
Growth slows between ages 4-6, with a growth spurt starting again at puberty.
Developmental Milestones, Ages 2–5 Years | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
Cognitive Development
Cognitive Milestones:
Infants can shake their heads "no" by 6-9 months.
Object permanence is understood by about 8 months.
Preschoolers can count and understand basic time concepts.
Attachment in Infants
Attachment: A deep emotional bond to caregivers is crucial for development.
Secure Base: A caregiver who provides safety, allowing the child to explore the environment.
Type of Attachment | Description |
|---|---|
Secure Attachment | Child prefers parent over strangers and feels safe to explore. |
Avoidant Attachment | Child shows little interest in the parent and treats them like a stranger. |
Resistant Attachment | Child is clingy but rejects the caregiver's offers of comfort. |
Disorganized Attachment | Child behaves erratically and may appear confused upon reunion with the caregiver. |
Self-Concept
Development of self-awareness begins in infancy.
By 18 months, toddlers recognize themselves in mirrors.
A positive self-concept leads to better confidence and social skills in children.
Understanding Death and Dying
Importance of Death in Life
Every life story has an ending. Death marks its conclusion.
Our view of death is influenced by culture and personal backgrounds:
Some cultures embrace death as a natural part of life.
Historically in the U.S., doctors would often not inform patients of their terminal conditions, and many died in hospitals.
The Role of Hospice
Cicely Saunders created the first modern hospice in England in 1967 to provide dignity and comfort to dying patients outside of hospitals.
Florence Wald established the first U.S. hospice in 1974.
Today, hospice cares for about 1.65 million Americans, allowing many terminally ill patients to spend their last days at home with their families.
Hospice Care Benefits
Hospice care is beneficial for:
Patients: High satisfaction rates from being at home and not relying on strangers for care.
Family: Emotional support and reduced caregiving burden.
Studies suggest hospice patients tend to live longer compared to non-hospice patients.
Stages of Grief by Elizabeth Kübler-Ross
Kübler-Ross described five stages of grief that people may experience when facing death:
Denial: Refusing to accept the reality of death.
Anger: Feeling frustrated and helpless.
Bargaining: Trying to negotiate a way out of death (e.g., making promises).
Depression: Feeling sad, withdrawn, and hopeless.
Acceptance: Finding a way to accept and face death peacefully.
Not everyone experiences all stages or in the same order.
Coping with Death
People with religious or spiritual beliefs may cope better due to hope for an afterlife and social support from their community.
Randy Pausch, a professor diagnosed with terminal cancer, focused on making meaningful use of his remaining time instead of succumbing to despair, highlighting the importance of living joyfully even in hard times.
A community resource, living wills and advance directives, allows individuals to express their medical decisions in case they can’t communicate them later.
This may include decisions about not receiving life-extending treatments or appointing someone to make healthcare decisions for them if needed.