unit 1: chemistry of life

what is science?

science (features) - testable; repeatable; fallible

scientific method - make observations → form questions → create hypotheses → test hypotheses → run experiment(s) → analyze results → make conclusion / theory

hypothesis - testable solution; possible answer to a question

null hypothesis (H₀) - no effect; nothing will change

alternative hypothesis (Hₐ) - observable effect; something will change

independent variable (IV) - altered variable

dependent variable (DV) - variable expected to change in response to other variable

control group - comparison group; only independent variable changes

negative control - used to determine failure or no change

negative control - used to determine success or change

ontology - the nature of being; does a characteristic define or diagnose something?

epistemology - study of knowledge; when do you know something?

parsimony - most probable solution has the least number of assumptions

induction - looks at evidence that supports hypothesis

deduction - looks at evidence that rejects hypothesis

• paradox of the raven

oxygen, water, & hydrogen

electronegativity - tendency to acquire electrons

oxygen - very electronegative

hydrogen bonds - weak electrostatic bonds between water molecules; easily separate and rejoin

cohesion - attraction to self / like molecules

adhesion - attraction to other / differing molecules

hydrophilic - water loving

hydrophobic - water fearing; non-polar

capillary action - water moves up tube against gravity; due to cohesion + adhesion

carbon

carbon - 4 valence electrons; 4 covalent bonds; strong cohesion

functional group - part of a molecule

hydrocarbons - compound made of carbon and hydrogen

acidic - can release H⁺; turns OH to O⁻

**basic - can collect H⁺; turns N to N⁻

hydroxyl (structure) - R to OH; polar

sulfhydryl (structure) - R to SH; polar

methyl (structure) - R to CH₃; non-polar

carbonyl (structure) - C double bonded to O; polar

carboxyl (structure) - C double bonded to O; C to OH; acidic

amino (structure) - N with 3 single bonds; add H⁺, becomes N⁻; basic

phosphate - phosphorus bonded to OH; acidic

macromolecules

polymers - molecule consisting of repeating monomers

primary protein structure - chain of amino acids

amino group - C bonded to amino, carboxyl, hydrogen, and R

hydrolysis - add water; destroy macromolecules; release amino acids

condensation - dehydration; destroy macromolecules; release amino acids

carbohydrates (mono) - monosaccharides

carbohydrates (poly) - polysaccharide

carbohydrates (bond) - glycosidic

carbohydrates (elements) - CHO

proteins (mono) - amino acids

proteins (poly) - polypeptide

proteins (bond) - peptide

proteins (elements) - CHON(S)

nucleic acid (mono) - nucleotide

nucleic acid (poly) - DNA; RNA

nucleic acid (bond) - phosphodiester

nucleic acid (elements) - CHONP

lipids (elements) - CHO(P)

carbohydrates (functions) - energy; structure; cell recognition

isomers - compounds with same chemical formula but different arrangements

enantiomers - isomers; non-superimposable; mirror images

diastereomers - isomers; non-superimposable; non-mirror images

fructose - monosaccharide; ketose; six carbon

disaccharides - two monosaccharides linked by glycosidic bond

α 1-4 glycosidic bond - alpha ring form; bond between carbon 1 & 4

β 1-4 glycosidic bond - beta ring form; bond between carbon 1 & 4

α 1-6 glycosidic bond - alpha ring form; bond between carbon 1 & 6

polysaccharides - long chain of monosaccharides

starch - plant energy storage; glucose; mostly α 1-4 glycosidic bonds; α 1-6 glycosidic bond every 24-30 bonds

glycogen - animal energy storage; glucose; mostly α 1-4 glycosidic bonds; α 1-6 glycosidic bond every 8-12 bonds

cellulose - plant fiber; β 1-4 glycosidic bond

chitin - used for arthropod exoskeletons and fungi cell walls

lipids (functions) - energy storage; structure; communication; protection

fatty acid - long hydrocarbon chain with a carboxyl group

unsaturated fatty acid - double bonded hydrocarbon; more liquidy

saturated fatty acid - no double bonds; hydrocarbon; more solid

proteins (functions) - structure; transport; enzymes; communication; storage; movement; defense

n-terminal - start of polypeptide

c-terminal - end of polypeptide

primary structure - order of amino acids in a polypeptide

secondary structure - local folding in regions of polypeptide; α-helix and β pleated sheet; hydrogen bonds

tertiary structure - unique 3D structure of polypeptide; determined by R group interactions

quaternary structure - combination of multiple polypeptides (subunits)

amino acid groups - positively charged (basic) R group; negatively charged (acidic) R group; uncharged polar R group; uncharged nonpolar R group

protein mutation - likely benign if in-group; likely pathogenic if out-group

nucleic acids (functions) - information; protein synthesis; regulation; energy; structure

dna (function) - nucleic acid; carries genetic information

dna (location) - nucleic acid; in nucleus

dna (stability) - nucleic acid; more stable

dna (structure) - nucleic acid; double helix

dna (sugar) - nucleic acid; deoxyribose

dna (pyrimidines) - nucleic acid; cytosine, thymine

rna (function) - nucleic acid; involved in protein synthesis

rna (location) - nucleic acid; leaves the nucleus

rna (stability) - nucleic acid; less stable

rna (structure) - nucleic acid; single stranded

rna (sugar) - nucleic acid; ribose

rna (pyrimidines) - nucleic acid; cytosine, uracil

nucleotide - nitrogen base; 5 carbon sugar; phosphate group (1-3)

nucleoside - nitrogen base; 5 carbon sugar

nitrogen bases - pyrimidines; purines

pyrimidines - single ring; cytosine, thymine, uracil

purines - double ring; guanine, adenine

dna (order) - created from 5’ to 3’

transcription - from dna to rna

translation - from rna to protein