Test 2 Study Guide Flashcards

Sampling & Working with Participants (Chapter 7)

Population: The entire group of individuals to which a researcher is interested in generalizing findings.
Sample: A subset of the population that is selected for study.
Stratum: A subgroup of the population that shares a particular characteristic (e.g., age, gender, ethnicity).
Sampling Population element: An individual member of the population.
Census: A study that includes every member of the population.
Non-probability sampling: Sampling techniques where the probability of selecting any particular element from the population is unknown.
- Convenience sampling: Selecting participants who are readily available (e.g., students in a class).
- Purposive sampling: Selecting participants based on specific criteria or characteristics.
- Snowball sampling: Existing study participants recruit future participants from among their acquaintances.
- Quota sampling: Creating a sample that reflects the proportions of subgroups within the population.
Representative sampling: A sample that accurately reflects the characteristics of the population.
Probability sampling: Sampling techniques where the probability of selecting any particular element from the population is known.
- Stratified sampling: Dividing the population into strata and then randomly sampling from each stratum.
- Cluster sampling: Dividing the population into clusters and then randomly selecting clusters to sample.
Generalization: The extent to which the findings of a study can be applied to the larger population.
Random sample: A sample in which every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected.
Nonrandom sample: A sample in which the probability of selecting any particular member of the population is unknown.
Sources of participants: Various methods for recruiting participants, including online sources, volunteer sign-ups, and existing databases.
Online sources: Using online platforms (e.g., social media, online forums) to recruit participants.
Attention checks: Measures used to ensure that participants are paying attention and responding thoughtfully.
Volunteer bias/volunteerism: The tendency for volunteers to differ systematically from non-volunteers.
Role playing: Asking participants to simulate a particular behavior or scenario.
Animal research and sampling: Using animals as research subjects and employing appropriate sampling techniques.
Substitutes for animal research: Alternative methods to animal research, such as computer simulations or in vitro studies.
Sampling people, situations, and stimuli: Selecting representative samples of people, situations, and stimuli to enhance generalizability.
Sequential sampling: A type of sampling where you evaluate data as you collect it and stop sampling when you have enough data to make a decision.

Relational Research (Chapter 8)

Behavioral categories: Specific, well-defined behaviors that are observed and recorded in a study.
Frequency method: Counting the number of times a particular behavior occurs.
Duration method: Recording the amount of time a participant engages in a particular behavior.
Time sampling: Observing behavior during specific time intervals.
Individual sampling: Selecting one participant at a time for observation.
Event sampling: Recording every instance of a specific event or behavior.
Interval method: Dividing the observation period into intervals and recording whether a behavior occurs during each interval.
Interrater reliability: The degree to which different observers agree on their observations.
Cohen’s Kappa: A statistical measure of interrater reliability for categorical data.
- Calculated by the formula: $κ = (p<em>o - p</em>e) / (1 - p<em>e)$ , where $p</em>o$ is the observed agreement and $p_e$ is the expected agreement.
Intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC): A statistical measure of interrater reliability for continuous data. It assesses the consistency or agreement of measurements made by multiple observers or instruments.
Quantitative data: Numerical data that can be statistically analyzed.
Qualitative data: Non-numerical data, such as interviews or observations, that are analyzed for themes and patterns.
Naturalistic observation: Observing behavior in its natural setting without intervention.
Grounded theory: A qualitative research approach that develops theories from data.
Ethnography: A qualitative research approach that studies cultures and groups of people.
Participant observation: A research method where the researcher becomes a part of the group being studied.
Nonparticipant observation: A research method where the researcher observes the group without participating.
Sociometry: A method for studying the relationships within a group.
Sociogram: A visual representation of the relationships within a group.
Case history: An in-depth analysis of a single individual or event.
Archival research: Analyzing existing data, such as documents or records。
Content analysis: A method for analyzing the content of communication, such as texts or videos.
Information extraction: The process of automatically extracting structured information from unstructured text.
Meta-analysis: A statistical technique for combining the results of multiple studies to arrive at an overall conclusion.
Funnel plot: A graphical tool used to detect publication bias in meta-analysis.
Issues with meta-analysis: Potential problems with meta-analysis, such as publication bias and heterogeneity.

Survey & Questionnaire Research (Chapter 9)

Questionnaire: A set of written questions used to gather information from respondents.
Cantril scale: A self-anchoring scale used to measure subjective well-being.
Open ended item: A question that allows respondents to answer in their own words.
Restricted item: A question that provides respondents with a limited set of response options.
Partially open-ended item: A question that provides respondents with a set of response options, as well as an "other" option where they can write in their own answer.
Rating scale: A scale that allows respondents to indicate their level of agreement or disagreement with a statement.
Demographics: Basic characteristics of a population, such as age, gender, ethnicity, and income.
Gender vs sex: Distinguishing between gender (socially constructed roles and identities) and sex (biological characteristics).
5 principles for gender questions:
- Inclusiveness: Including all gender identities.
- Precision: Using clear and specific language.
- Autonomy: Allowing participants to self-identify.
- Parsimony: Keeping questions simple and concise.
- Privacy: Protecting the confidentiality of responses.
Race and ethnicity: Categorizing individuals based on their racial and ethnic backgrounds.
Likert scale: A rating scale that measures attitudes or opinions.
Mail survey: A survey that is administered through the mail.
Nonresponse bias: The tendency for people who do not respond to a survey to differ systematically from those who do respond.
Internet survey: A survey that is administered online.
Telephone survey: A survey that is administered over the phone.
Face-to-face interview: A survey that is administered in person.
Mixed-mode survey: A survey that uses multiple methods of administration.
Probability sampling: Sampling techniques where the probability of selecting any particular element from the population is known.
Representative sample: A sample that accurately reflects the characteristics of the population.
Biased sample: A sample that does not accurately reflect the characteristics of the population.
Simple random sampling: A sampling technique where every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected.
Stratified sampling: Dividing the population into strata and then randomly sampling from each stratum.
Proportionate sampling: A type of stratified sampling where the sample size for each stratum is proportional to its size in the population.
Systematic sampling: Selecting every nth member of the population.
Cluster sampling: Dividing the population into clusters and then randomly selecting clusters to sample.
Multistage sampling: A sampling technique that involves multiple stages of sampling.
Sampling error: The difference between the characteristics of a sample and the characteristics of the population.
Validity: The extent to which a measure accurately reflects the concept it is intended to measure.
Reliability: The consistency or stability of a measure.
Cross-lagged panel procedure: A statistical technique used to examine the causal relationships between variables over time.
Mediation: A statistical technique used to examine the extent to which a third variable mediates the relationship between two other variables.

Experimental Design (Chapter 10)

Independent variable: The variable that is manipulated by the researcher.
Dependent variable: The variable that is measured by the researcher.
Confound: A variable that is not controlled for and that could affect the results of the study.
Control variables: Variables that are kept constant to prevent them from influencing the results of the study.
Between-subjects design: An experimental design where different groups of participants are exposed to different levels of the independent variable.
Within-subjects design: An experimental design where the same group of participants is exposed to all levels of the independent variable.
Single-subject design: An experimental design where the focus is on the behavior of a single participant.
Two-group vs multi-group design: Comparing two groups or multiple groups.
Error variance: The variability in the dependent variable that is not due to the independent variable.
T-test: A statistical test used to compare the means of two groups.
ANOVA: A statistical test used to compare the means of two or more groups.
MSbetween: Mean square between groups. $MS_{between}$
MSwithin: Mean square within groups. $MS_{within}$
Randomized two-group design: Participants are randomly assigned to one of two groups.
Parametric design: An experimental design that uses parametric statistical tests.
Nonparametric design: An experimental design that uses nonparametric statistical tests.
Multiple control group design: An experimental design that includes multiple control groups.
Matched-group design: Participants are matched on a particular characteristic before being assigned to groups.
Matched-pairs design: A type of matched-group design where participants are matched in pairs.
Carryover effect: The effect of one treatment condition on a subsequent treatment condition.
Counterbalancing: A technique used to minimize carryover effects by presenting treatment conditions in different orders.
Factorial design: An experimental design that includes two or more independent variables.
Main effect: The effect of one independent variable on the dependent variable, ignoring the other independent variables.
Interaction: The effect of one independent variable on the dependent variable depends on the level of another independent variable.
Scale-dependent interaction: An interaction effect that depends on the scale of measurement used.
Cross-over interaction: An interaction effect where the effect of one independent variable on the dependent variable reverses at different levels of another independent variable.
Partial cross over interaction: An interaction effect where the effect of one independent variable on the dependent variable partially reverses at different levels of another independent variable.
Meaningfulness: The practical significance or real-world importance of research findings.

Reporting Your Research Results (Chapter 16)

Primary source: An original source of information, such as a journal article or book.
Secondary source: A source of information that summarizes or interprets primary sources.
Running head: A shortened version of the title that appears at the top of each page.
Title page: The first page of a manuscript, which includes the title, author's name, and affiliation.
Author note: A section that provides information about the authors, such as their affiliations or funding sources.
Author contribution: A statement that describes the contributions of each author to the research.
Abstract: A brief summary of the research.
Introduction: A section that provides background information on the research topic and states the research question.
Method section: A section that describes how the research was conducted.
- Participants subsection/Subjects subsection: A subsection that describes the participants in the study.
- Apparatus subsection: A subsection that describes the equipment used in the study.
- Materials subsection: A subsection that describes the materials used in the study.
- Procedure subsection: A subsection that describes the steps taken during the study.
Results section: A section that presents the findings of the research.
- Tables: Visual representations of data.
- Figures: Visual representations of data.
Discussion: A section that interprets the results of the research and discusses their implications.
Limitation: A statement of something that could have impacted the results of your research.
Constraints of generality: Factors that limit the extent to which the findings of a study can be generalized.
Reference section: A list of all the sources cited in the manuscript.
Biased language: Language that is offensive or discriminatory.
Plagiarism: Presenting someone else's work as your own.