Adolescent Development Week 6
By the end of this topic, you will be able to:
Explain the family systems approach and how changes within family subsystems, such as dyadic relationships, impact adolescent development.
Identify and compare parenting styles and evaluate their effects on adolescents’ social, emotional, and behavioural outcomes.
Describe patterns of attachment and conflict between adolescents and their parents, including how these dynamics vary across cultures and continue to evolve into emerging adulthood.
Discuss the nature of sibling relationships during adolescence, including sources of support and conflict, and how these relationships change during the transition to adulthood.
Analyse how broader societal changes—including shifts in family structure, cultural diversity, and digital communication—are reshaping the adolescent family experience in contemporary contexts.
6.1 | The Adolescent in the Family System
The Family as a Dynamic System
Adolescents develop within the context of the family, which functions as a dynamic and interdependent system. Rather than viewing the family as a collection of separate individuals, the family systems approach emphasises:
The interconnectedness of all members
The idea that each member both influences and is influenced by the others
As such, a change in one part of the system can cause ripple effects throughout the entire family (Cox & Paley, 1997).
Example: When an adolescent begins to assert greater independence, this may shift not only how parents respond to them, but also how parents relate to each other or how siblings interact within the household.
Dyadic and Polyadic Relationships
At the core of the family system are dyadic relationships—two-person interactions that form subsystems, such as:
Mother–child
Father–child
Sibling–sibling
These dyads are nested within polyadic subsystems, which involve more complex interactions (e.g., the family unit as a whole).
Changes in one dyadic relationship can influence other relationships within the system.
Example: Increased conflict between a mother and adolescent daughter may affect:
How the father interacts with each of them
The dynamics between siblings
This highlights the reciprocal nature of family processes—where change is rarely isolated or one-directional, but relational and systemic.
Disequilibrium and Developmental Transitions
A key concept in family systems theory is disequilibrium—a temporary state of imbalance or disruption that arises during periods of transition. In adolescence, disequilibrium is often triggered by:
Puberty and physical maturation
The adolescent’s push for greater autonomy
Evolving family roles and expectations
As adolescents gain cognitive maturity and seek independence, they begin to:
Challenge parental authority
Desire a greater voice in decision-making
These shifts can disrupt established patterns of interaction, leading to tension and conflict within the family (Collins & Luebker, 1994). However, disequilibrium is not inherently negative. It represents an opportunity for families to:
Renegotiate roles and boundaries
Adapt to developmental needs in more age-appropriate ways
Key Concepts/Definitions
Family systems approach: A theoretical framework that views the family as an interconnected and interdependent system, where changes in one member affect the entire unit.
Dyadic relationships: Two-person interactions within the family (e.g., parent–child, sibling–sibling) that influence and are influenced by broader family dynamics.
Polyadic subsystems: Larger family groupings that encompass multiple dyadic relationships, reflecting the complex interrelations within the family system.
Reciprocal influence: The concept that changes in one family relationship can cause shifts across other relationships, highlighting the bidirectional nature of family interactions.
Disequilibrium: A temporary state of imbalance in the family system triggered by developmental transitions like adolescence, which can lead to growth through renegotiation of roles and boundaries.
6.2 | Parenting Styles
Authoritative Parenting
The authoritative style is widely regarded as the most developmentally supportive. These parents:
Show high responsiveness and high demandingness
Combine warmth and support with clear structure and expectations
Encourage independence, yet remain involved and communicative
Adolescents raised in authoritative households typically show:
High self-esteem, academic motivation, and social competence (Steinberg, 2001)
Lower engagement in problem behaviours (e.g., substance use, delinquency)
Strong emotional regulation and decision-making skills (Hoeve et al., 2011)
This parenting style supports both autonomy and a secure parent–child bond, providing an ideal context for identity development during adolescence.
Authoritarian Parenting
Authoritarian parents are high in demandingness but low in responsiveness. They:
Enforce strict rules and expect obedience
Often discourage open dialogue or emotional expression
Adolescents from authoritarian households may:
Comply with rules in the short term
Experience lower self-esteem, higher anxiety, or poorer social skills (Baumrind, 1991)
Develop feelings of resentment or become rebellious
This style may also hinder the development of autonomy and critical thinking—skills essential for navigating adolescence. However, in some collectivist cultures, authoritarian parenting may be interpreted as a sign of care and commitment, and may not yield negative outcomes (Chao, 2001).
Permissive (Indulgent) Parenting
Permissive parents are highly responsive but low in demandingness. They:
Are affectionate and accepting
Place few limits or expectations on adolescent behaviour
While this style supports self-expression and creativity, it is associated with several risks:
Poor self-regulation
Increased impulsivity
Greater likelihood of risky behaviours (e.g., substance use, early sexual activity) (Lamborn et al., 1991)
Potential academic difficulties due to lack of structure
Although adolescents may experience high levels of freedom, the absence of guidance may limit their ability to use that freedom responsibly.
Neglectful (Uninvolved) Parenting
Neglectful parenting is low in both responsiveness and demandingness. These parents may be:
Emotionally unavailable
Inconsistently involved due to stress, personal issues, or disengagement
Adolescents in neglectful households are at increased risk for a range of difficulties:
Poor academic performance
Low self-esteem
Higher likelihood of delinquent behaviour
Emotional issues such as depression or anxiety (Steinberg, 2001)
Without parental support during this critical period, adolescents may struggle to develop:
Secure relationships
A stable and coherent identity
Reciprocal Influence
Flexibility and Reciprocal Influence
It is important to note that:
Parents do not always adhere strictly to one style in every context
Adolescents can influence parenting through reciprocal socialisation
Nevertheless, the dominant parenting style tends to set the tone for how adolescents:
Navigate autonomy and independence
Build relationships
Develop a sense of self and identity
Key Concepts/Definitions
Parenting styles: General emotional climates in which parents raise children, classified by levels of responsiveness (warmth) and demandingness (control).
Authoritative parenting: High in both responsiveness and demandingness; associated with positive adolescent outcomes like high self-esteem, academic motivation, and social competence.
Authoritarian parenting: High in demandingness but low in responsiveness; linked to lower self-esteem, greater anxiety, and suppressed autonomy, though effects may vary by cultural context.
Permissive parenting: High in responsiveness but low in demandingness; associated with impulsivity, poor self-regulation, and increased risk-taking behaviour.
Neglectful parenting: Low in both responsiveness and demandingness; associated with poor academic and emotional outcomes due to a lack of support and guidance.
6.3 | Adolescents' Relationship with Parents
Attachment to Parents During Adolescence
Although adolescence is often associated with growing independence, attachment to parents continues to play a central role in emotional and social development. Attachment theory, originally developed by Bowlby, emphasises the enduring nature of the parent–child bond. During adolescence, this bond may shift in form but not in strength.
Securely attached adolescents typically feel confident seeking support when needed, while still exploring independence.
This balance between connectedness and autonomy supports healthy development.
Research shows that secure attachment is associated with:
Better emotional regulation
Greater social competence
Lower levels of internalising problems such as anxiety and depression (Allen & Miga, 2010; Jones & Cassidy, 2015)
Secure attachment also serves as a protective factor during the transitions and stressors of adolescence. Adolescents who view their parents as emotionally available and supportive cope better with challenges like peer conflict, academic pressure, and identity formation.
Conversely, insecure attachment—marked by avoidance or anxiety—can hinder:
Emotional regulation
Peer relationship development
Coherent self-concept formation
Importantly, attachment is shaped not only by early caregiving but also by ongoing relational experiences. Warmth, consistency, and responsiveness can strengthen attachment bonds even during adolescence (Allen et al., 2003).
Parent–Adolescent Conflict
Conflict typically increases in early adolescence, and this is a normal and expected part of development. As adolescents undergo cognitive and emotional growth, they begin to:
Challenge parental rules
Assert their own perspectives and preferences
Common areas of conflict include:
Chores
Homework
Curfews
Screen time
Hygiene
Academic performance
Clothing
Friendships and dating (Smetana, 2011)
These everyday disagreements usually stem from differing views:
Adolescents often see these issues as matters of personal choice
Parents may view them as issues of safety, morality, or social norms
This mismatch in perception often fuels the intensity of conflict.
While conflict may be uncomfortable, it can also signal healthy development, reflecting the adolescent’s need for identity formation and autonomy. The way conflict is handled matters more than how frequently it occurs:
When parents use warmth, reasoning, and flexibility, conflicts can support adolescents’ negotiation and communication skills.
However, intense or poorly managed conflict—marked by hostility, withdrawal, or coercion—can harm development.
Prolonged high-conflict relationships are associated with:
Increased risk of depression, anxiety, and behavioural problems (Smetana et al., 2006)
Greater secrecy and reduced parental disclosure
Lower levels of closeness
Over time, as adolescents mature and parents adjust, conflict often declines in later adolescence, and relationships tend to become more cooperative and balanced.
Culture and Conflict
The nature, content, and meaning of conflict between parents and adolescents are strongly shaped by cultural values and family norms.
In Individualistic Cultures (e.g., North America, Western Europe):
Emphasis is placed on autonomy, self-expression, and independence
Some degree of open conflict is viewed as normal, even healthy
Common sources of disagreement include:
Clothing
Dating
Social media
Privacy
Peer relationships (Smetana, 2011)
Adolescents in these cultures often view these as personal domain issues, whereas parents may connect them to broader values or safety concerns.
In Collectivist Cultures (e.g., many Asian, Middle Eastern, Latin American, and African societies):
Values such as obedience, family duty, and respect for elders are prioritised
Adolescents may avoid open confrontation out of respect for family harmony
Conflict may be more implicit or indirect, and typically centres on:
Academic expectations
Fulfilling family responsibilities
Showing appropriate respect (Fuligni, 1998; Yau et al., 2009)
For instance, while a Western adolescent might argue about going out with friends, a Chinese adolescent might experience conflict over not studying enough or neglecting family obligations.
These differences reflect underlying cultural conceptions of self:
Individualistic cultures emphasise an independent self-construal
Collectivist cultures promote an interdependent self-construal
As a result, the emotional impact and interpretation of conflict can vary:
In cultures that value harmony and hierarchy, open conflict may be more distressing
In cultures that encourage independence, conflict may be seen as a natural part of identity development (Tamis-LeMonda et al., 2008)
Understanding these cultural variations is critical when evaluating adolescent adjustment and parent–child dynamics.
Changes in Parent–Child Relationships in Emerging Adulthood
As adolescents transition into emerging adulthood (typically ages 18–25), relationships with parents often undergo significant transformation. With increased independence—through university, employment, or leaving home—many emerging adults begin to see their parents more as advisors than authority figures.
Relationships become more egalitarian, marked by:
Mutual respect
Voluntary communication
Less conflict, more closeness (Arnett, 2004)
This shift often coincides with a growing appreciation for parents’ perspectives, as emerging adults experience the realities of adult responsibilities.
Despite this shift, many emerging adults remain emotionally and financially connected to their parents, especially in Western societies where:
Economic pressures delay traditional milestones of adulthood
Parents continue to provide housing, tuition support, or emotional scaffolding (Fingerman et al., 2012)
When this support fosters autonomy rather than dependence, it can be highly beneficial. However, tensions may arise if:
Parents struggle to “let go”
Emerging adults feel restricted by parental expectations
The quality of the parent–child relationship during this period can have lasting implications for mental health, identity development, and successful transition into adult roles.
Key Concepts/Definitions
Attachment theory: Emphasises the enduring nature of parent–child bonds, which remain important for emotional regulation and well-being during adolescence.
Secure attachment: Involves a balance between emotional closeness and growing independence; associated with positive outcomes such as social competence and lower internalising symptoms.
Insecure attachment: Characterised by avoidance or anxiety, it can impair emotion regulation, peer relationships, and identity development during adolescence.
Parent–adolescent conflict: Increases during early adolescence as adolescents seek autonomy; typically focuses on personal domain issues like clothing or curfews.
Disequilibrium: A temporary state of family imbalance triggered by adolescent developmental changes, often leading to renegotiation of roles and boundaries.
Constructive conflict resolution: Involves warmth, reasoning, and open communication, promoting adolescent negotiation skills and stronger relationships.
High-conflict relationships: Marked by coercion or hostility, they are linked to increased risk of depression, anxiety, and reduced parental closeness.
Cultural differences in conflict: Western cultures often view conflict as normal and autonomy-affirming, while collectivist cultures emphasise harmony and indirect conflict resolution.
Emerging adulthood relationships: Parent–child dynamics become more egalitarian, with reduced conflict and greater mutual respect as independence increases.
Parental scaffolding: Continued emotional and financial support during emerging adulthood that fosters autonomy and can positively impact identity development and adjustment.
6.4 | Sibling Relationships
Sibling Relationships in Adolescence
Sibling relationships are among the longest-lasting and most emotionally intense relationships in a person’s life. During adolescence, these relationships often become more complex, as young people mature and the functions of sibling bonds shift. Siblings can serve as:
Companions
Confidants
Rivals
Role models
These roles are fluid and influenced by factors such as age, family dynamics, and social context. For many adolescents, siblings provide vital support during stress, especially in situations involving parental conflict. However, adolescence also tends to bring increased conflict and differentiation, as siblings seek to establish distinct identities and social roles within the family.
Conflict and Differentiation
Sibling conflict is common in adolescence and often peaks in early to mid-adolescence. Frequent areas of dispute include:
Fairness
Parental attention
Personal boundaries
Shared resources
While some rivalry is normative, persistent or hostile conflict can negatively impact emotional well-being and contribute to externalising behaviours. However, not all conflict is harmful:
Constructive disagreement can promote the development of negotiation and conflict resolution skills
Differentiation—the process of establishing distinct roles and identities within the family—can reduce rivalry and support individuality
Influences on Sibling Dynamics
Sibling relationships are shaped by several factors, including:
Birth order: Firstborns often assume leadership or responsibility; later-borns tend to model older siblings' behaviour
Gender composition: Sisters typically report greater closeness and communication than brothers, especially in same-gender pairs (Buhrmester & Furman, 1990)
Age spacing: Affects the nature and intensity of sibling interactions
Another important influence is parental treatment. Even perceptions of differential treatment—such as favouritism—can lead to:
Increased sibling tension
Decreased relationship quality (Jenkins et al., 2016)
This occurs even when actual differences in treatment are minimal, highlighting the importance of perceived fairness.
Developmental Outcomes and Spillover Effects
The quality of sibling relationships during adolescence has implications for other developmental domains. Supportive sibling bonds are associated with:
Higher self-esteem
Better peer relationships
Reduced risk-taking behaviour
In contrast, high levels of sibling conflict, especially when combined with strained parent–child relationships, can amplify adjustment problems (Conger & Little, 2010).
In families experiencing stressful life events—such as divorce, illness, or financial hardship—siblings often play a buffering role, providing emotional support and maintaining continuity amidst change.
Sibling Relationships in Emerging Adulthood
As individuals move into emerging adulthood (approximately ages 18–25), sibling relationships typically become:
Less conflictual
More voluntary
Factors like university, employment, or independent living may reduce daily contact, but emotional closeness often increases. This stage marks a transition from obligatory relationships to chosen bonds, with siblings interacting more as peers than rivals.
Research shows that siblings often grow closer during emerging adulthood, particularly when:
They experience similar life transitions
They gain new appreciation for shared family experiences (Whiteman, McHale, & Soli, 2011)
Patterns established in adolescence often carry over:
Siblings who were close during adolescence typically maintain strong connections
Siblings who were more distant may reconnect in the absence of earlier competition
As emerging adults increasingly define their own lives, siblings can offer:
Non-judgmental support
Validation
A sense of shared identity
Thus, sibling bonds remain a meaningful and evolving component of the family system well into adulthood.
Key Concepts/Definitions
Sibling relationships are emotionally intense and dynamic, serving multiple roles such as companions, rivals, and role models that evolve throughout adolescence.
Sibling conflict often peaks during early adolescence, typically involving fairness, boundaries, and parental attention, but can promote conflict resolution skills if managed constructively.
Differentiation refers to the process by which siblings establish distinct identities and roles within the family to reduce rivalry and assert individuality.
Birth order and gender influence sibling dynamics, with firstborns often taking on leadership roles and same-gender sibling pairs, especially sisters, reporting higher closeness.
Perceived parental favouritism can increase sibling tension and reduce relationship quality, even when actual differences in treatment are minimal.
Spillover effects occur when sibling relationship quality impacts other developmental areas such as self-esteem, peer relationships, and risk-taking behaviour.
Emerging adulthood brings a shift toward more voluntary and supportive sibling relationships, with increased emotional closeness and peer-like interactions.
6.5 | The Changing Family in a Changing Society
Changing Family Structures and Adolescent Development
Families are dynamic systems, and in recent decades, societal changes have led to significant shifts in their structure, roles, and functioning. These changes have altered traditional ideas of the nuclear family, without necessarily having negative consequences. Instead, they create new contexts in which adolescents develop.
Key structural shifts include:
Increased divorce rates
Dual-earner households
Single parenthood
Same-gender parenting
Multicultural and blended families
For example, adolescents in single-parent or divorced families may face more transitions and stressors, such as:
Changes in living arrangements
Economic instability
However, many of these adolescents adjust well when their family relationships remain stable and supportive (McLanahan, Tach, & Schneider, 2013).
Diverse Family Forms
One of the most notable changes has been the rise of diverse family configurations, including:
Same-gender parent families
Adoptive families
Stepfamilies
Extended kinship networks
Research shows that family processes (e.g., warmth, communication, monitoring) are more important for adolescent outcomes than family structure alone (Golombok, 2015).
Adolescents in non-traditional families can thrive when they feel emotionally supported and receive consistent caregiving
Societal shifts toward greater inclusivity have also led to more recognition of the strengths and resilience found in a variety of family arrangements
Impact of Globalisation and Technology
Globalisation and digital technology have significantly reshaped family life:
Many adolescents grow up with parents working long or irregular hours, or in geographically dispersed families
Digital tools (e.g., texting, video calls) help maintain family connections across distance
While increased screen time may reduce some face-to-face interactions, technology also enables:
Ongoing communication (e.g., co-parenting across households)
Sibling and family bonding across locations
At the same time, social media and virtual peer networks are shaping adolescents’ experiences in new ways—sometimes leading to tension, especially as parents try to monitor or guide digital behaviour.
Cultural Diversity and Migration
In many parts of the world, adolescents are raised in bicultural or multicultural family contexts, particularly in immigrant families. This can lead to intergenerational differences in:
Language use
Cultural values
Pace of acculturation
For instance, adolescents often adapt more quickly to the host culture than their parents, which can result in conflict around issues such as:
Autonomy
Gender roles
Academic expectations (Titzmann & Lee, 2018)
However, protective factors such as:
Strong family cohesion
Open communication
Cultural pride
can buffer these challenges and support positive identity development in multicultural contexts.
Continuity Amidst Change
Despite structural and contextual changes, the core functions of the family remain:
Emotional support
Socialisation
Stability
Guidance
What has changed is the form these functions take and the societal context in which families operate. Today’s families must navigate:
Economic pressures
Cultural shifts
Technological advancements
—all while supporting adolescents through one of the most important and complex developmental stages.
Key Concepts/Definitions
Family diversity refers to the wide range of family structures today, including single-parent, same-gender parent, stepfamilies, and multicultural households, which provide varied contexts for adolescent development.
Family processes such as warmth, communication, and monitoring are more important for adolescent outcomes than traditional family structure.
Family transitions such as divorce or changes in living arrangements can pose stressors for adolescents, but supportive and stable relationships help promote adjustment.
Technology and globalisation have reshaped how families interact, with digital communication enabling connection across distance but also introducing new challenges like managing adolescents’ online lives.
Bicultural and immigrant families often face intergenerational acculturation gaps that can lead to conflict, though strong family cohesion and cultural pride can buffer negative effects.
Core family functions—emotional support, stability, socialisation, and guidance—remain crucial, though they are now expressed in more diverse and adaptive forms.