AP Human Geography Summary (pages 11-14)

Political Boundaries

• Defined: Established through written agreements, treaties, or legal documents.

• Delimited: Drawn on maps to show the boundary.

• Demarcated: Physically marked with walls or fences.

• Satellite State: An independent state that is heavily influenced or controlled by a more powerful country.

• Buffer State: A weaker independent state situated between two powerful countries to prevent conflict.

• Regional Bloc: A group of countries sharing a common identity or purpose, often for economic or political reasons.

The Law of the Sea (1973-1982)

• Territorial Sea: Up to 12 nautical miles from the baseline, where a state has sovereignty.

• Contiguous Zone: Up to 24 nautical miles, where a state can enforce laws related to customs, immigration, and pollution.

• Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) : Up to 200 nautical miles, where a state has rights to marine resources.

• High Seas: Areas beyond national jurisdiction, open to all states.

Political Systems

• Unitary System: Central government holds primary power, delegating authority to local governments.

• Confederation: States or regions hold primary power, delegating limited authority to a central government.

• Federal System: Power is shared between central and state governments.

• Devolution: Transfer of power from central to regional governments to prevent conflict or civil war.

Agricultural Labor

• Largest Share: Africa has the largest share of labor in agriculture.

• Subsistence Agriculture: Focused on sustaining the family, common in less developed regions.

• Commercial Agriculture: Aimed at making a profit, prevalent in more developed regions.

  • Intensive: High labor and capital input on small plots for high yield.

  • Extensive: Low labor and capital input on large plots for lower yield per acre.

Transhumance

• Definition: Seasonal movement of livestock between higher elevations in summer and lower elevations in winter.

• Development: More common in less developed regions.

Land Survey Systems

• Metes and Bounds: Uses natural landmarks to define land boundaries.

• Long Lot: Narrow parcels stretching back from rivers or roads.

• Etc. : Other systems include rectangular survey systems.

Human History

• Origins: All humans began as hunters and gatherers, living nomadic lifestyles.

Stages of Economic Growth

1. Traditional Society

   • Characteristics: Subsistence, barter

   • Insight: Economies are primarily agricultural with limited technology.

2. Preconditions for Take-off

   • Characteristics: Specialization, surpluses, infrastructure

   • Insight: Laying the groundwork for industrialization.

3. Take-off

   • Characteristics: Industrialization, political change

   • Insight: Rapid growth and investment in industry.

4. Drive to Maturity

   • Characteristics: Diversification, innovation

   • Insight: Economies become more complex and less reliant on a single industry.

5. Age of High Mass Consumption

   • Characteristics: Consumer durable goods flourish, service sector dominance

   • Insight: Economies focus on consumer goods and services, indicating high living standards.

Weaknesses of Economic Models

• Irreversibility: Countries cannot regress to previous stages.

• External Pressures: Models do not account for global influences and pressures.

Gentrification

Positives

• Urban Renewal: Involves revitalizing urban areas, leading to improved infrastructure and aesthetics.

• Increased Property Values ($$$): Property values often rise, benefiting property owners.

• Changes in Land Use: Land is repurposed for more efficient or profitable uses.

• Changes in Character of Neighborhood: Can lead to a more vibrant community with diverse amenities.

Negatives

• Displacement: Original residents, often from racial or ethnic minorities, may be forced out due to rising costs.

• Loss of Community: Family businesses and local culture may die out as new businesses move in.

Key Concepts

• Infilling: Redevelopment of vacant land to improve surrounding areas. It can be sustainable and improve access to transportation and hospitals.

• Redlining: Refusal to grant home loans to certain areas, often based on racial or ethnic biases, is considered xenophobic and racist.

• Blockbusting: Discriminatory practices in real estate, leading to housing issues and environmental injustice.

Industrialization

Overview

• Definition: Rapid transformation of the economy through the introduction of machines and new technologies.

• Timeline:

  • Great Britain: ~1760

  • United States: ~1830

Pre-Industrialization

• Subsistence Farming: Predominantly rural, with cottage and guild industries.

Factors Leading to Industrialization

• Why Great Britain?

  • Cheap labor

  • Abundant materials and energy

  • Strong infrastructure

  • Access to capital and markets

City Growth

• Upward vs. Outward: Cities expanded both vertically and horizontally.

Global Impact

• Spread: Great Britain → Americas → Europe → African Colonies → Southeast Asia

Additional Insights

• Land Tenure Issues: Squatters and land rights can become contentious as urban areas expand.

• Environmental and Social Impact: Industrialization often leads to environmental challenges and social upheaval.

What Influences Manufacturing Locations?

• Energy

• Materials

• Labor

• Markets

• Transportation

Weber’s Least Cost Theory

• Bulk Reducing: input → factory → market

• Bulk Gaining: raw material → factory → market

• Weaknesses: Cannot represent all real-world conditions, not necessarily current but still applicable

Key Economic Indicators:

• GNI ($) → Amount of all goods & services by a country’s citizens

• GDP ($) → Amount of all final goods & services produced within a country in one year

• GDP per Capita → Country’s total output / population

• Gini Coefficient → Measures distribution of wealth

• PPP (Purchasing Power Parity) → Adjusts for variations in prices of goods

Development & Social Indicators:

• Total fertility rate shows a negative relationship with wealth and development

• HDI → Measured by GNI, life expectancy, expected years of schooling

Low GDP per Capita Trends:

• High rates of women working in agriculture

• Obstacles to gender equality: cultural barriers, lack of education, limited access to loans, wage gap

Trade Advantages:

• Absolute Advantage → Produce more of a good

• Comparative Advantage → Produce more efficiently

• Competitive Advantage → Firm/businesses' comparative advantage

Industrial Regions Today:

• US, Europe through China

Economic Sectors:

• Primary → Natural resource extraction

• Secondary → Production/manufacturing

• Tertiary → Providing services

• Quaternary → Managing & processing info

• Quinary → High-level decision-making & creating info

• Informal → Not recorded but still paid work

Global Economic Core States:

• Industrialized first, dominated trade and finance

Wallerstein's World Systems Theory:

• Core, Semi-periphery, Periphery

• Weaknesses: Doesn’t account for India’s growth or outside pressures

Dependency Theory:

• The periphery remains poor due to dependence on core countries

Commodity Dependence:

• Raw materials exported to the core (e.g., Africa)

Stages of Economic Growth:

1. Traditional (subsistence, barter)

2. Specialization (surpluses, and infrastructure)

3. Take-off (industrialization, political change)

4. Drive to maturity (diversification, innovation)

5. High mass consumption (consumer goods flourish, service sector dominates)

• Weaknesses: Countries can't go backward; it doesn’t account for external pressures

Government Efforts to Promote Economic Growth:

• Tax breaks, loans, embargoes

• Shift from protectionism to neoliberalism

Major Global Organizations:

• WTO (1995): Regulates trade between 184 states

• IMF: Promotes global cooperation and financial stability

• World Bank: Loans, aids with food security & climate change

• OPEC: 13 member states, controls oil supply

• Mercosur: Trade alliance in South America

• NAFTA: Trade alliance between Canada, US, Mexico

Production Trends:

• Offshoring: Moving production to another country

• Outsourcing: Transferring work to a 3rd party

Fordism vs. Post-Fordism

• Growth poles: Silicon Valley

• Agglomeration economies

Special Economic Zones (SEZs):

• Different trade laws (e.g., China, maquiladoras)

• EPZ & FTZ offer incentives to attract foreign investment

Ecological Footprint:

• Measures human impact on the environment

Sustainable Development:

• Meets current needs without compromising future generations

• Examples: Clean Air Act (1963), Clean Water Act (1972)

Carbon Neutrality & Carbon Offsets

Ecotourism:

• Nature-based tourism

• Related to debt-for-nature swaps (debts forgiven if investments are made for environmental impact)