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AP Government & Politics | Unit 1 Foundations of American Democracy: Comprehensive Notes

Historical Context and Drive for Independence

  • 1764-1773: Series of British revenue acts (Sugar, Stamp, Tea) → colonists resent "taxation without representation."
  • King George III + Parliament restrict civil liberties (speech, assembly, press); royal courts punish protestors.
  • Olive Branch Petition rejected; colonies mobilize for war.
  • Enlightenment inspiration: Locke (natural law, consent, right to rebel), Rousseau (social contract, popular sovereignty), Montesquieu (separation of powers).
  • Timeline high points
    • 1770 Boston Massacre
    • 1773 Boston Tea Party
    • 1774 First Continental Congress
    • 1775 Lexington & Concord
    • 1776 Declaration of Independence
    • 1781 Articles of Confederation ratified
    • 1786 Shays’s Rebellion
    • 1787 Constitutional Convention
    • 1789 New government convenes; Washington inaugurated
    • 1791 Bill of Rights ratified

Enlightenment Foundations & Republican Ideology

  • Natural Rights: "life, liberty, property/happiness"—inviolable unless by consent.
  • Social Contract: citizens trade some natural freedom for collective security; may retract consent if gov’t oppressive.
  • Popular Sovereignty: ultimate authority rests with the people.
  • Republicanism: limited, representative gov’t guarding liberty.

Competing Models of Representative Democracy

  • Participatory Democracy
    • Direct citizen involvement (e.g., New England town meetings, initiatives/referenda; 26 states allow ballot measures).
    • Modern cases: Students for a Democratic Society (Port Huron Statement), Occupy Wall Street.
  • Pluralist Democracy
    • Multiple interest groups (unions, NRA) compete → policy by consensus.
    • Assumes diversity prevents single‐view domination.
  • Elite Democracy
    • Policy shaped by small, resource-rich actors; founders acknowledged inevitability of elite influence.

Declaration of Independence (1776)

  • Committee: Jefferson, Adams, Franklin, Sherman, Livingston.
  • Core claims
    • Equality & unalienable rights.
    • Gov’ts derive "just powers from the consent of the governed."
    • People may "alter or abolish" destructive gov’ts.
    • List of Crown’s abuses (dissolving legislatures, quartering troops, taxation, warfare).
  • Establishes moral & legal justification for separation; articulates popular sovereignty.

Articles of Confederation (1781-1789)

  • Structure
    • "Firm league of friendship;" each state retains "sovereignty, freedom, independence."
    • Unicameral Congress; 1 vote per state; 9/13 to enact legislation; 13/13 to amend.
    • Powers: war/peace, treaties, coinage, adjudicate state disputes, request $.
    • No executive, no judiciary, no direct tax power.
  • Strengths
    • Negotiated Treaty of Paris, NW Ordinance, full faith & credit, extradition language.
  • Weaknesses
    • \text{No power to tax} → war debt unpaid.
    • \text{No standing army} → Shays’s Rebellion exposes vulnerability.
    • \text{No national currency}; chaotic interstate trade.
    • Super-majority rules stall policy.

Shays’s Rebellion (1786-1787)

  • MA farmers rebel over foreclosures & taxes; state militia funded by elites quells uprising.
  • Demonstrates need for stronger central authority; impetus for Philadelphia Convention.

Constitutional Convention (Philadelphia, May-Sep 1787)

  • Secrecy rule (windows closed); Washington presides; Madison records ("Father of the Constitution").
  • Plans
    • Virginia Plan (Randolph/Madison): 3 branches, bicameral legislature chosen by population, national supremacy.
    • New Jersey Plan (Paterson): retain state sovereignty, unicameral w/ equal votes, limited powers, no nat’l courts.
  • Grand/Great (Connecticut) Compromise (Sherman): bicameral Congress—House by population, Senate 2/state.
  • Three-Fifths Compromise: count \frac{3}{5} of enslaved population for House seats + direct taxes.
  • Slave Trade Compromise: Congress barred from banning importation until 1808; fugitive-slave extradition clause.
  • Electoral College: states choose electors = House + Senate seats; mitigates direct popular selection (elite model).

Structure of the Constitution (Ratified 1788)

  • Preamble: "We the People…" purposes—union, justice, tranquility, defense, welfare, liberty.
  • Article I – Legislative
    • Bicameral Congress; House (2-yr, popular), Senate (6-yr, originally state legislatures).
    • Enumerated powers (Section 8): tax, borrow, regulate commerce, naturalization, coin , postal, patents, declare war, raise army/navy, militia, DC governance.
    • Necessary & Proper Clause grants implied powers.
    • Limits (Section 9): no bills of attainder, ex post facto, export taxes, nobility.
    • State limits (Section 10).
  • Article II – Executive
    • Qualifications: 35 yrs, natural-born, 14-yr resident.
    • Commander-in-Chief, treaties (w/ Senate 2/3), appointments (Senate advice & consent), State of Union, faithful execution.
  • Article III – Judiciary
    • One Supreme Court; inferior courts by Congress.
    • Life tenure during "good behavior"; salary protection.
    • Jurisdiction: federal law, treaties, state disputes, ambassadors.
    • Defines treason.
  • Article IV – Interstate Relations
    • Full Faith & Credit; Privileges & Immunities; republican guarantee; extradition.
  • Article V – Amendment Methods
    • Proposal: \frac{2}{3} Congress OR \frac{2}{3} state conventions.
    • Ratification: \frac{3}{4} state legislatures OR \frac{3}{4} state conventions.
  • Article VI – Supremacy Clause; no religious test; assume Confederation debts.
  • Article VII – Ratification by 9 conventions sufficient.

Core Constitutional Principles

  • Separation of Powers: discrete legislative, executive, judicial functions.
  • Checks & Balances
    • Presidential veto; \frac{2}{3} override.
    • Senate confirmation & treaty approval.
    • Impeachment: House charges, Senate trials (\frac{2}{3} to convict).
    • Judicial review (Marbury v. Madison 1803 later affirms).
  • Federalism: division of delegated vs reserved powers; 10^{\text{th}} Amendment safeguards states.
  • National Supremacy: federal law supreme within its sphere.
  • Limited Government & Rule of Law: Constitution enumerates, separates, limits powers; Bill of Rights entrenches liberties.
  • Flexibility Mechanisms: Elastic Clause + Amendment process → adaptation (e.g., women’s suffrage 1920, income tax 1913).

Ratification Struggle (1787-1790)

  • Federalists (Hamilton, Madison, Jay): support strong union; publish 85 essays as “Publius” → Federalist Papers.
    • Federalist No. 10: large republic dilutes factions; pluralism prevents majority tyranny.
    • Federalist No. 51: ambition counteracts ambition; checks & balances secure liberty.
  • Anti-Federalists / Brutus: fear consolidated power, standing army, taxation; demand Bill of Rights; Brutus No. 1 argues large republic cannot reflect diverse citizenry.
  • Ratification tallies: Delaware first (30-0); NH ninth (57-47) activates Constitution; VA, NY narrowly join; NC (1789) & RI (1790) last.

Bill of Rights (1791)

  • Madison drafts 12 amendments; 10 ratified. Core protections:
  1. Speech, press, religion, assembly, petition.
  2. Bear arms.
  3. No quartering soldiers.
  4. No unreasonable searches/seizures; warrants.
  5. Grand jury, double jeopardy, self-incrimination, due process, eminent domain.
  6. Speedy public trial, impartial jury, counsel, confront witnesses.
  7. Civil jury trials.
  8. No cruel & unusual punishment or excessive bail/fines.
  9. Unenumerated rights retained by people.
  10. Powers not delegated reserved to states/people.
  • Addresses Anti-Federalist fears; embeds civil liberties into constitutional structure.

Modern Policy Illustrations & Civil Liberties

  • USA PATRIOT Act (2001) expands surveillance, info sharing; sparks Fourth Amendment debate → USA Freedom Act (2015) curtails bulk data collection.
  • Post-9/11 tension between national security & individual rights exemplifies enduring constitutional balancing.

Operation of the Three Branches Today

  • Legislative
    • 435 Reps (≥25 yrs), 100 Senators (≥30 yrs).
    • Committees draft legislation; CRS & media provide transparency.
    • C-SPAN broadcasts; constituents lobby via communication & elections.
  • Executive
    • West Wing staff, \approx 20 cabinet secretaries, 2.7 million civilian employees.
    • Agencies (EPA, FCC, EEOC) issue regulations; bureaucracy implements laws; president shapes policy via enforcement discretion.
  • Judicial
    • 9 justices; majority ≥5 to decide; concurring & dissenting opinions frame precedent.
    • Must-Know decisions set civil rights, liberties, federal-state boundaries (to be detailed in later units).

Key Compromise Summary Chart (Text Version)

  • Virginia Plan → big-state pop. representation.
  • New Jersey Plan → state equality.
  • Great Compromise → bicameralism.
  • Three-Fifths Compromise → slave representation fraction.
  • Slave Trade Clause → 20-year moratorium.
  • Electoral College → indirect presidential election.

Essential Vote Thresholds & Numerical Rules

  • Simple majority to pass bills: 50\% + 1 in each chamber.
  • Veto override: \frac{2}{3} each house.
  • Treaty approval: Senate \frac{2}{3}.
  • Amendment proposal: \frac{2}{3} Congress or states; ratification \frac{3}{4} states.
  • Impeachment conviction: Senate \frac{2}{3}.

Vocabulary Snapshot (selected)

  • Habeas Corpus, Bills of Attainder, Ex Post Facto.
  • Enumerated vs Implied powers.
  • Full Faith & Credit; Privileges & Immunities.
  • Delegated, Reserved, Concurrent powers.
  • Pocket Veto; Two-Thirds Override.

Real-World Relevance & Ethical Considerations

  • Federal grants & mandates vs state innovation (marijuana legalization, family leave, gambling).
  • Representation debates continue via Electoral College criticism & Senate malapportionment.
  • Surveillance vs privacy rights, especially for marginalized communities post-9/11.
  • Gridlock & partisan polarization test Madisonian checks while protecting minority viewpoints.

Study Tips & Cross-Connections

  • Always tie clauses (e.g., Commerce, Necessary & Proper, Supremacy) to landmark cases (McCulloch v. Maryland, U.S. v. Lopez).
  • Compare Articles of Confederation limitations to Constitution’s remedies.
  • Track how amendments shift federal-state balance (e.g., 17^{th}, 24^{th}, 26^{th}) and expand democracy.