BIO EXAM
Integumentary System is the Skin: Protective Layer
Celia in the skin sweeps away particles until they are expelled.
Mucous membranes: sticky fluid that traps particles
Gastric juices: kill most of the bacteria you swallow
BLOOD: Plasma: 52% water 3% proteins, electrolytes, and substances being transported.
Cellular elements: 44% red blood cells, 1% white blood cells, and platelets
White Blood Cells: produced in red bone marrow
Phagocytic cells swallow cells they are organized by how they function
Innate cells are premade and ready to attack
Lymphocytes are produced after contact with a specific invader, and B and T cells are developed, creating an immune response.
Neutrophils: first to respond but die quickly
Macrophages: develop from a monocyte, leave the blood, and enter the tissue. They are a big Lymphocyte.
Basophil: made in the red bone marrow, leaves the blood to go into tissues and releases histamine.
Eosinophils: release chemicals to reduce inflammation
Platelets create not blood clots, but do plug injuries
Fibrin: captures red blood cells in the netting and forms blood clotting, using a positive feedback loop.
A positive feedback loop means that while something returns to functioning, it has to create a new baseline, and isn’t the same as it was before.
Complement system: assembles on the surface of invading cells and forms a hole. It activates inflammation, labels pathogens, and destroys pathogens
The lymphatic system: invading microbes are swept into lymph nodes. It consists of lymph and lymph nodes.
Innate is immediate, physical barriers, inflammation, and generalized response.
Adaptive is slower, recognizing the invader.
When an antigen invades bacteria, it elicits an immune response. Antigens bind to lymphocytes, and B cells produce antibodies.
Natural Killer Cells murder cells. they recognize tumor or virus cells and release chemicals to lysis the cells.
Helper T cells are lymphocytes that stimulate the production of other immune cells. Clonal selection is once an antigen activates a particular lymphocyte it multiplies creating an army of cells when needed.
in a person with HIV, your body can no longer easily make T cells. When these levels drop even further making it impossible for your body to make T cells, it becomes AIDS.
Memory cells: B and T cells help remember, fight, and recognize antigens.
Immune system malfunctions can be caused by stress, allergies, autoimmune disease, and organ rejection.
Allergic reactions: A harmless substance enters the body and B cells make an antibody. Most cells release histamine during allergic reactions.
Tonsils form a protective ring of lymphatic tissues around nasal and oral cavities.
the spleen filters blood and recycles blood cells.
The Thymus gland produces and matures lymphocytes.
Ovulation
When a Mature follicle ruptures forcing, Doapte into peritoneal
females are born with all Oogonia by Puberty about 300,000-400,000 Oogonia
Lase left
FSH-follicle Stimulating hormone.
Puberty begins 11-13
Menarche is the first Period.
Elevated levels of estrogen and progesterone in mammary gland.
Menstrual Cycle:
Menses is when the endometrium is shed Average of 28 days
Days 1-5
is Menses, Shedding endometrium
6-13 Proliferative, estrogen increase, follicle Matures
14 Ovulation progesterone levels increase Cervical Mucus thins, and Oocyte is released.
15-28 Secretory phase, endometrium prep for implantation estrogen decreases, Progesterone levels high.
Pregnancy Can Occur at any time in the cycle
Deuterostomes
Menopause
The time when Ovaries secrete fewer hormones and the number of follicles in ovaries is low menstrual cycle and ovulation are less regular.
hot flashes, fatigue, and irritability may occur.
•humams, killer whales, elephants, lions. Highly Social and live a long time
estrogen replacement therapy may be used to decrease side effects
Human Development
Amniotes, amniotic sac.
Prenatal development
1st Trimester
Fertilization - 12 Weeks
Most vulnerable to stress
Chromosomal sorting, defects
Second Trimester
13-24
Organs complete most development
Anatomical detail imaging. 3rd trimester 25-birth
Rapid growth.
Pre-embryonic
Cleavage, uterine tube, implantation, Bl 3 days, 30 has
Embryogenesis
Blastocyst attaches to endometrium
trophoblast on implantation
- Syncitiotropoblast: grows into the uterus like roots, uterus heals by growing.
Prenatal Nutrition
Uterine milk: glycogen, uterine tubes,
Trophoblastic directly from the Uterus.
Placental: oxygen, nutrients, Waste removal, Week 9-birth.
Fetus
8 Weeks, differentiation of organ tissues. prepare for life outside of Womb. The heart can Circulate blood.
Parturition: Birth, Positive feedback uterine Contracts C-Section
epidural anesthesia
Order
grow
• process energy
reproduce
evolve.
Birth Control
The pill: low dose Progesterone thickens Cervical Mucus and thins endometrium. IUDs, Copperions, toxic to sperm,
Levonprogestrial : Prevents ovulation. blocks implantation.
Not the same as an Abortion pill. Mifepristone
Shuts off progesterone inhibitor Stops maintaining uterus.
Covid & Zoonotic Diseases
Zoonotic disease
transmitted between species.
Bacterial
Viruses
Protist
fungi
Animal to animal
Human to animal
Animal to Human
Prions: infcations protein
Zoonoses can hide. they have reservoirs in Species where they can evolve, change, etc.
Zoonoses can evolve in or in a host Species or other infected species. Nearly impossible to eliminate reservoir, but vaccines can still reduce the spread
Contamination:
insect vectors
Wildlife, Pets, animal attacks
farming, animal husbandry
Bush meat Deforestation and habitat degradation
Climate Change. Secondary transmission.
Ecological Disturbance: If you shake a tree something is gonna fall out.
When contact with humans increases more likely to spread disease to humans.
Spillover
Contagion -human-to-human disease spreads, after the initial spread from animals to humans
Because humans are mammals they are more likely to catch zoonotic diseases from other mammals, especially primates.
Don't kiss turtles.
Spill over the event when a Virus overcomes several barriers to become feasible in another Species.
•Disease can not be too effective in the primary host.
The primary host acts as a reservoir.
A pandemic is when and epidemic spreads to more than one continent.
An epidemic is a brand new disease outbreak
Pandemic: It Spreads to other continents
endemic: Constantly present in Certain Population.
Hendra, started in Aussie, 7 dead horses, people dying, bat feces in horse water.
Ringworm ✓ Caused by fungus, fungal Water. Spores Spread animal to human, from the environment,
Dengue fever: breakbone fever" female Aedes spp. mosquitoes.
100m get sick, 40k die. Aedes used to only be in the tropics because they would die in a freeze, now climate change has helped them to spread.
Climate Change, Rapid Expansion Covid-19SARS-COV 2
unknown initial reservoir, Potentially Civets But most agree a bat consumed. Spread through respiratory droplets
Covid Varients Virus with mutated genetic Sequence.
Expect new varients to Prevalence they evolve and rise in when
Vaccines are effective
Ebola:
filovirus SSANA, Named for the Ebola River. They have a fruit bat reservoir.
Outbreaks are deadly, fast, normally short.
The infected dies within days or a few weeks, or they make a recovery. Hemorrhagic fever. Populations affected are isolated, because of the fruit bat habitat.
Infamous Diseases
Plague of Justinian No one left to die.
The Black Death
Great Plague of London
Smallpox*
Cholera *
Means Not Zoonotic
Artificial Active Immunity: Vaccines Exposing Immune systems to an antigen and stimulating memory cells.
Paradigm: When there is a prevailing thought on something and that thought shifts.
Herd immunity is if enough people are Vaccinated the pathogen is inhibited.
Immuno Compromised People, people who are at high risk and can’t get vaccines, rely on the rest of society to get vaccinated.
DNA/RNA vaccines: genes coding for Spike recognition. Spike will be recognized by the memory Cells, the Lymphatic system builds antibodies for spike proteins. No actual Virus is injected.
Booster shots are an extra dose of the vaccine after the initial dose.
Influenza: endemic, yearly flu vaccines, Made for different Strains.
Bubonic Plaque: Spread by fleas, Pneumonic Plague. Europe 1340s, 25m dead in years
Flu 1918
H1N1 flu virus, Spanish flu, Ist World War Spain was in a civil war and was not involved in 1st World War, So the news was unbiased. Because of this people read Spanish newspapers and found out through Spanish news, so it’s known as the Spanish Flu.
Lyme disease
Borrelia burgdorferi, tick bites animal and then human and exchanges bacteria.
Anthrax
working with, or eating infected animals, also spread through insects, has been Weaponized, WWI used as a bioweapon. There was a deadly outbreak USSR in 1979 likely broke out of lab.
2001 Amerithrax, Postal Service, bioweapon sent through the mail. An Anthrax Researcher sent Anthrax because he thought the US wasn't worried or prepared enough.
Reproductive System:
Functions:
Produce gametes, fertilization, develop and nourish new individuals
gametes
Sperm
Meiosis
Cell division leads to the formation of sex cells.
Cocytes or eggs
Each Sperm and oocyte have 23 hapliod cells
fertilization is the union of sperm and oocyte, when the union happens a Zygote is formed, which developes into embryo in 3-14 days.
4-56, 56 days the baby is a fetus.
Male Reproductive system: produces sperm cells, Produces male sex hormone, transfers sperm to female
The Scrotum: testes, make sperm.
Sperm must develop at a temp less than body temperature, so the scrotum uses the dartos muscle.
Testes are the Primary male reproductive organ, make sperm, and contain seminiferous tubules where Sperm is produced.
Epididymis: Where the Sperm goes to grow.
Ductus Deferens one of a pair of long, tightly coiled tubes above each testis. It stores and carries sperm from seminiferous tubules to the vas deferens
Urethra: extends from urinary bladders, the passageway for urine and male reproductive fluids.
Corpus cavernosum, hudna Stat Glands: Seminal vesicles, Prostate gland
bulbourethral gland
Semen: Sperm & Secretions from glands.
Sensinal vescicles
Provide fructose (manseuccaride) (Simple Sugar)
Prostaglandins decrease mucas, holy move through Female system.
Prostate cancer: contains en after in ontains enzymes to liquery semen female, neutralize acidity of vagina.
Bullbourethral gland:
Neutralizer acidity of male urethra and female Vagina.
Testicular Secretion : include Sperm & small amount of fluid. unite
2-5 ml of semen is ejaculated.
1. Sperm developed
2 epididymis
3 Ductus deferens
Sperm Cell
head- DNA
midpiece-mitochondria, breves dawn fructose, how flagellum moves.
tail - flagellum
Male Sex hormones and Ove to Uterus
an
Vagina, Protects
Puberty
Bio
Secondary Sexual characteristics: Skin texture, hair growth fat distribution, Skeletal muscle growth, and larynx changes Sequences of events in Which bay
Female Reproductive system
Produce Docytes
Receive Sperm
Vulva External Sex organs, mons pubus: Fatty layer of Skin covering Plubic symphysis.
Labia majora: larger outer folds of skin
equivalent to male Scrotum
Labia mi
thin inner folds of skin, form Clitoras hood.
Clitoris: erectile Structure
Prepuce: Wher 2 Clitoris. labia minora unite over Vestibule: The space in which Vagina and
The urethra the Ovary, is located in the primary reproductive organ. anchored by ovarian ligaments, Ova to the uterus
Suspensory ligaments anchor ovaries to the pelvic Cavity. Ovarian follicle: Cells in Ovaries that contain
Oocyte, follicle is like the envelope. the fallopian tube extends toward the Ovaries and receives oocytes.
Tubal ligation)
The uterus receives, retains, and produces nourishment for fertilized or ayte, embryo resides.
Cervix: the region that leads to Vagina, Protects internal organs.
Perimetrium (serous) outermost Myometrium (muscular) middle layer endometrium: the innermost layer that is during Implant. Shed Menstruation. Where zygote reeds to
ectopic Pregnancy is when the zygote implants outside the endometrium.
Vagina extends from the uterus to the outside. Very acidic. Very muscular Walls and Mucous membranes.
Annotated bibliography, Short, Concise, brief, 1 Paragraph per source.
Five Sources.
Chagas disease
Protozoan (triatomine. Parasite, Transmitted by kissing bugs
Hook Worm
Can be transmitted Larvae Penetrate humans Skin to infect people.
Rabies
RNA affects All Mammals Centran Can Nervous get System Babies. Dogs, raccoons, Skunks, foxes, bats, reservoirs.
Bite Most Common dehydration. Hydrophobia because rabies creates intense burning, Swallowing hurts, becoming fearful of water.
Monkey Pox
ds DNA, May 2022 Outbreak. Possibly rats. Skin-to-skin contact, many thought it was STD or only Spread through being gay, and this contributed to the Spread.
West Nile
• Mosquito Vector
Zika
Microcephaly
Vertical
Verti Vertide transmission, Mother to child, umbilical cord,
Vaccines Herd Immunity.
Artificial Active Immunity: Vaccines Exposing Immune System Stimulating memory Cells. to an antigen
A New Diva could be a Paradigm:& When there is something and Paradigm Shift, is a Prevailing thought it Shifts.
Antivax movement: Correlation to increase autism. But increase in More research diagnoses. done so there's an
Herd Immunity: If enough People's Pathogen is hindered. are Vaccinated
Immunocompromised People at high risk.
DNA/RNA vaccines
• Genes coding for Spike
recognition spike, the Lymphatic system builds antibodies for Spike Proteins
No actual Virus is injected.
Booster Shots
Extra dose of the vaccine after a Yearly Flu Vaccines Initial dose.
endemic. different Strains.
fungi
infections
BIO: Plagues and Death
Bubonic Plague: Spread by fleas, Pneumonic plague, The black Death. Europe 1340s, 25m dead in 4 years. The quarantines helped and it Can be Cured.
Flu 1918
H1N1 Flu Virus, Spanish Flukes 1st World War, Spain Was in Press News Was a Civil War, Not involved so neutral So if you wanted unbiased you read out through Spanish Spains news, So they found News.
More people were dying from this than from war.
Lyme Disease
Borrelia burgdorferi, tick bites animal, then humas, exchange bacteria.
Rattlesnakes help Control the Spreach and eat tons of rodents. of
Layout
Anthrax
Working w/or eating infected animals, and insects, Has been Weaponized - WWI, used as a bio Weapon. deadly Outbreak USSR in 1979, likely broke out of the lab.
2001 Amerithrax, Postal Service, bioweapon Sent through the Mail. Anthrax Researcher Sent Anthrax because he thought us wasn't Worried or Prepared enough.