World History Lecture Review
Chapter 1: Foundations for Historical Study
1.1 Developing a Global Perspective
The Importance of History
Knowing the past, the human story, is crucial for understanding civilization. Its study is more vital now than ever, equipping individuals with skills necessary for the global workforce and fostering a sense of self and belonging within our interconnected world.
Skills and Objectives
Students will acquire critical-thinking and analysis skills, empowering them to act as global citizens. This text encourages an open-minded approach to history, engaging readers with content that remains pertinent in contemporary society.
1.2 Primary Sources
Definition and Interpretation
Primary sources are first-hand accounts and evidence that historians use to construct knowledge of the past. Interpreting these sources requires careful attention to four critical areas:
The Author: Who created the source?
The Audience: For whom was the source intended?
The Intent: What was the author's purpose in creating the source?
The Context: What were the historical circumstances surrounding the creation of the source?
Secondary Sources and Historical Gaps
Secondary sources provide valuable initial insights and contextual information, but students must critically evaluate them for potential biases. Despite consistent efforts by historians across generations, there are still significant gaps in our knowledge regarding certain people and regions. It is hoped that future generations of historians will continue to refine and deepen our understanding of the past.
1.3 Causation and Interpretation in History
The Historian's Role
The fundamental task of a historian is to determine the underlying reasons and causes for historical events. They seek to understand "why" events unfolded as they did, shaping our shared human past.
Methodology
Historians employ a rigorous interpretative methodology centered on the search for causation. They examine events to identify both immediate causes and broader contributing factors. This process demands an impartial approach, avoiding judgment, and remaining open to the revision of historical narratives as new evidence or interpretations emerge.
Chapter 2: India, Southeast Asia, and East Asia
2.1 India and International Connections
The Mughal Empire
Zahir al-Din Muhammad Babur, a Muslim, founded the Mughal Empire, initially showing little inclination to assimilate with Indian culture. However, his grandson, Akbar, fostered a syncretic culture, blending Indian and Persian, Hindu and Muslim elements. Under Akbar, the Mughal Empire expanded significantly, encompassing most of northern and much of central India, including the wealthy Sultanate of Gujarat, a vital hub for Indian Ocean trade. The empire experienced weakening under Aurangzeb, who attempted an Islamic revival and was largely intolerant of the Hindu population, leading to battles with the Maratha Empire for dominance in 17^{th}-century India.
European Control and Alliances
European powers sought to control India's immense wealth.
Portuguese: Initially attempted to establish trading posts and displace Arab and other merchants. They faced resistance from Indian rulers and the Mamluk sultan but were ultimately unsuccessful in being completely expelled. The Portuguese formed alliances with some Indian rulers.
English and French: Soon competed with the Portuguese, also forming alliances with Indian rulers and exploiting existing disputes among them.
British Consolidation: As the Mughals and Marathas engaged in warfare, alongside invading Afghan forces, many states in northern India broke away from their existing rule. These states allied with the British, allowing Britain to gradually consolidate its power across the subcontinent.
2.2 The Malacca Sultanate
Establishment and Prosperity
The Malacca Sultanate was founded around 1400 by Parameswara, the last king of Singapura. Its success was largely due to its strategic location on both sides of the Malaccan Straits, which served as the crucial trade route connecting the Indian Ocean and the Pacific. The city flourished, attracting a diverse population of merchants from various countries. Under Mansur Shah's leadership, the sultanate expanded its territory and prosperity, further enhanced by its support for Islam and the creation of a legal code to regulate the conduct of foreign sailors.
European Intervention
In 1511, the Portuguese attacked and occupied Malacca. However, their insistence on converting the local population to Christianity led to their expulsion not only from Malacca but also from the Sultanate of Ternate in Indonesia. Ultimately, the Spanish gained control of the Philippines, while the Dutch, who lacked an interest in spreading Roman Catholicism, emerged as the dominant European power in Indonesia.
2.3 Exchange in East Asia
Integration into Global Trade
East Asia became increasingly integrated into the global maritime trade networks during the 16^{th} and 17^{th} centuries.
Japan
Arrival of Europeans: The Portuguese and Spanish arrived in Japan during a period when powerful daimyos were vying for control to unify the country. European-introduced guns significantly impacted Japanese warfare.
Spread of Christianity: Many Japanese began converting to Christianity.
Tokugawa Ieyasu's Policies: In 1603, Tokugawa Ieyasu became the shogun of a unified Japan. Driven by a desire to control the samurai and concerns about the loyalty of Christian subjects, he implemented strict policies:
Prohibited Christianity.
Banned the entry of Portuguese and Spanish individuals.
Prohibited Japanese citizens from leaving the country, except for government missions.
China
Ming Dynasty: Following the expulsion of the Mongols, China adopted an isolationist stance. The first Ming emperor, Hongwu, initially forbade foreign trade. However, due to financial needs, the government permitted trade with Europeans in the second half of the 16^{th} century. This trade brought prosperity to Chinese farmers, artisans, and merchants, although changes in lifestyle raised alarms among conservative elements. The Ming dynasty ultimately fell in 1644 due to widespread famines, floods, and the government's inability to address the country's severe problems.
Qing Dynasty: The subsequent Manchu Qing dynasty attempted to reassert traditional Confucian values while continuing trade with Europe.
Korea
Joseon Dynasty: As a vassal state of China, Korea's Joseon dynasty also sought to structure its society based on a Confucian model.
Silhak Movement: The 17^{th}-century Silhak movement in Korea championed the study of science and technology as a means to resolve societal issues.
Chapter 3: African Trade and Empires
3.1 The Roots of African Trade
Trans-Saharan Caravans and the Rise of Islam
Until the 16^{th} century, caravans regularly traversed the Sahara Desert, transporting goods, especially gold, from West Africa to trade centers in North Africa and Egypt. West African towns evolved into diverse stopping points along these routes. Islam flourished as merchants, rulers, and caravan leaders increasingly converted for both spiritual and financial reasons, intertwining the religion with the caravan trade.
The Malian Empire
Establishment: In the 13^{th} century, Sundiata Keita unified the Malinke and Soninke peoples, establishing the powerful Malian Empire.
Prosperity: Mali's control over the rich Bure goldfields became the foundation of its wealth.
Centers of Learning: Cities like Timbuktu and Djenné became renowned centers of Islamic scholarship.
Decline: The empire weakened after the death of Mansa Musa, struggling to withstand raids from the Mossi and Tuareg nomads and revolts from its subject cities. Although Malian rulers managed to negotiate peace with Portuguese slave traders in the mid-15^{th} century, they were unable to retain control of vital trade centers such as Gao, Timbuktu, and Djenné.
3.2 The Songhai Empire
Wealth and Expansion
The Songhai Empire's wealth was based on the same key commodities as its predecessors: salt, cloth, and gold. Sunni Ali's strategic program of annexation significantly expanded Songhai's territories. Growth continued under his successors, notably Askia the Great, who skillfully utilized Islam to solidify his control and ushered the Songhai Empire into its golden age.
Achievements and Decline
Songhai's rulers not only consolidated state control over the lucrative trans-Saharan trade but also transformed the empire into an unparalleled center of Islamic learning and study in West Africa. The great cities of Timbuktu and Djenné attracted merchants and traders involved in the caravan trade from across the continent, while their impressive mosques and schools drew pilgrims and scholars from throughout the Islamic world. However, Askia the Great's successors proved unable to maintain control of the vast empire. In the 16^{th} century, Songhai was defeated by Saadi forces from Morocco, who aimed to seize control of the trans-Saharan caravan routes.
3.3 The Swahili Coast City-states
Growth and Trade in the Indian Ocean
City-states along the east coast of Africa grew in size and wealth by leveraging favorable wind patterns to participate actively in the Indian Ocean trade network. Their populations were unified by a shared religion, Islam, and a common language, Swahili. Swahili traders sold products sourced from the African interior to merchants from Arabia, Persia, and India. In return, they purchased goods from India, Southeast Asia, and China. Enslaved Africans were also a commodity sold within the Swahili city-states.
Kilwa and European Challenges
Kilwa emerged as the most powerful of these states, growing wealthy through its control over the gold-rich city of Sofala. When the Portuguese arrived in the late 15^{th} century, they attempted to exploit existing discontent with Kilwa's dominance to gain control of the regional trade. However, a combined Somali-Ottoman alliance and the Omani Sultanate successfully drove the Portuguese from all the city-states along the coast, with the exception of Mozambique.
3.4 The Trans-Saharan Slave Trade
Kanem-Bornu and Disruption of Trade
Kanem-Bornu, which dominated Central Sudan and maintained an active caravan trade with North African states in the 13^{th} century, faced destabilization due to revolts and rebellions in the 14^{th} century. Although it regained prominence in the 16^{th} century, its power ended by the close of that century. The collapse of both Songhai and Kanem-Bornu allowed new polities like Dahomey, Oyo, and Segou to flourish. However, competition for trade soon escalated, leading to tensions and widespread warfare, which severely disrupted traditional trans-Saharan trade routes.
Reorientation Towards the Atlantic
Simultaneously, European powers, particularly Portugal, began making steady inroads into African trade, establishing trading posts along West African coasts in regions such as Whydah. By the 18^{th} century, a significant reorientation of trans-Saharan trade occurred. The growing European demand for enslaved captives, coupled with the desire of African chiefs to exploit these new opportunities for financial gain, shifted the focus away from traditional markets along the Mediterranean coast towards coastal West Africa. This new emphasis was squarely on the acquisition and transport of captives, transforming many coastal states into little more than conduits through which caravans of enslaved people passed, destined for the markets of European slavers.
Chapter 4: The Connected Islamic World
4.1 A Connected Islamic World
Geographic Reach and Cohesion
By the 16^{th} century, the religion of Islam had spread extensively beyond its origins in Southwest Asia, establishing thriving communities, large empires, and numerous kingdoms across West and East Africa, southeastern Europe, India, and Southeast Asia. Although no single powerful caliphate unified all these regions, the Islamic faith provided a significant degree of cohesion and unity, despite some theological disagreements.
Trade and Exchange of Ideas
Trade in various goods played a crucial role in unifying the broader Islamic world, flowing along numerous routes and through markets supervised by Muslim inspectors. Local states actively encouraged trade through their territories, as it brought economic benefits and access to new ideas and technologies. This trade often involved cooperation with the many non-Muslim communities, such as Jewish people and Christians, residing within the Islamic world. Beyond goods and people, trade routes also facilitated the spread of ideas, knowledge, and technologies, further reinforcing this cohesion. Examples include improvements in mapmaking and navigation, as well as military applications such as new firearms and artillery, which provided significant advantages to large Islamic empires of the era like the Ottomans, Safavids, and Mughals.
4.2 The Ottoman Empire
Diversity and Governance
The Ottoman Empire was one of the most ethnically and culturally diverse political entities of its time. Sultans, such as Suleiman I, actively encouraged people of all ethnicities to settle within the empire. The innovative millet system allowed each religious community to have its own leader, regulate its internal affairs, and educate its children. This diversity was reflected in the languages spoken: Turkish for government interactions, Arabic for scholarship and religious contexts, and Persian for literature.
Golden Age and Decline
The empire reached its zenith under Suleiman I, who was known in the West as "the Magnificent" and by Ottomans as "the lawgiver" for establishing a comprehensive legal code applicable throughout the realm. Science flourished under Suleiman and his successors, leading to important advancements in fields such as astronomy and medicine. However, the Ottoman Empire began to decline in power following the defeat of its forces by European navies at the Battle of Lepanto in 1571. By the 17^{th} century, the Ottomans found their power increasingly eclipsed by that of Russia in the strategically important Black Sea region.
4.3 The Safavid Empire
Establishment and Military Evolution
The Safavid state was established by Shah Ismail I in 1501, leading to rapid territorial expansion. Early on, internal conflicts among factions of the Qizilbash military corps were exploited by the Ottoman and Uzbek empires, resulting in territorial losses. To address this, Shahs Tahmasp and Abbas I created a new elite military force composed of enslaved people from the Caucasus, eventually replacing the Qizilbash.
Religious and Cultural Impact
The Safavid shahs were devoutly committed to Shi'ite Islam and forcibly converted Sunni Muslims within their territories. While they generally showed more tolerance towards non-Muslims, particularly those not residing in the Caucasus or along the Ottoman border, their militant Shi'ism and intolerance towards Sunnis greatly heightened tensions between Sunnis and Shia across the Muslim world—a rift that remains evident today. Despite these religious conflicts, the stability afforded by the Safavid political system allowed for a magnificent flourishing of art, exemplified by exquisite miniature painting, ceramics, and royal architecture. Following Abbas I, the growing power of Russia and other neighboring kingdoms led to a weakened Safavid state, which ultimately came to an end when Nader Shah of the Afsharid dynasty crowned himself shah in 1736.
Chapter 5: Global Transformations
5.1 The Protestant Reformation
Criticism and Early Reform Efforts
In the 16^{th} century, many European Christians grew critical of certain practices within the Catholic Church. Scholars in northern Europe, inspired by Christian humanism, sought to foster greater piety as a means of achieving religious reform.
Martin Luther and the Spread of Ideas
Martin Luther, a German monk, initiated the Protestant Reformation by publicly denouncing the Church's sale of indulgences. Although he was excommunicated, the advent of the printing press enabled his revolutionary ideas to rapidly spread throughout Europe. Luther's core teachings emphasized that salvation was achieved through faith alone, and that scripture was the sole source of Christian authority. His ideas resonated widely, gaining followers such as Ulrich Zwingli and John Calvin in Switzerland. Calvinists subsequently spread John Calvin's doctrines to the Netherlands, Scotland, France, and England. Additionally, various Anabaptist churches emerged, distinguishing themselves by rejecting infant baptism.
English Reformation and Religious Wars
In England, King Henry VIII rejected the pope's authority after his request for an annulment was denied. As Protestantism gained adherents across the continent, religious wars erupted throughout Europe. The Roman Catholic Church convened the Council of Trent in 1545; it reaffirmed key aspects of church doctrine while also implementing reforms aimed at addressing some of the issues that had fueled the Reformation. Despite these efforts, religious conflicts persisted for many years.
5.2 Crossing the Atlantic
Quest for New Trade Routes
Following the Ottoman conquest of Constantinople in 1453, Europeans were compelled to deal with Muslim middlemen to access valuable goods from South and East Asia. This spurred European nations to seek an all-water route to the eastern lands they referred to as "the Indies." This quest was facilitated by navigational technologies borrowed from the Middle East and driven by a potent combination of religious zeal and the desire for immense profit.
Portuguese and Spanish Explorations
The Portuguese were the pioneers in Atlantic exploration, claiming islands off the coast of Africa and charting a course down its western shore. In 1488, the Portuguese explorer Bartolomeu Dias successfully rounded the Cape of Good Hope, located at the southern tip of Africa. Spanish monarchs Isabella I of Castille and Ferdinand II of Aragon financed the voyages of Christopher Columbus, who landed in the Caribbean in 1492, mistakenly believing he had reached a part of the Indies. Although he did not discover great wealth there, Spanish exploration continued. Hernán Cortés conquered the wealthy Aztec Empire in Mexico, and Francisco Pizarro similarly conquered the silver-rich Inca Empire in Peru. To delineate their respective interests and avoid conflict, Spain and Portugal negotiated the Treaty of Tordesillas in 1494, which drew an imaginary line through the Atlantic, allotting the Americas (with the notable exception of Brazil) to Spain.
The Columbian Exchange and its Consequences
Animals, foods, and other vital resources flowed in both directions across the Atlantic through what became known as the Columbian Exchange, fundamentally altering the cultures and economies of North and South America, Europe, Asia, and Africa. However, this exchange also had devastating consequences: European diseases, to which Indigenous peoples had no immunity, traveled westward, wiping out an estimated 95 percent of the Indigenous populations in the Western Hemisphere. Prior to European contact, both Europeans and Indigenous peoples had developed rich, diverse, and vastly different cultures, societies, and religions.
5.3 The Mercantilist Economy
Theory and Practices
Mercantilist theory posited that for nations to attain power, they must maximize their reserves of precious metals. This was to be achieved by importing as few goods as possible while profitably exporting products to other countries. Embracing this theory, European governments implemented various economic policies:
Imposed tariffs on imported goods.
Granted monopolies to favored industries.
Subsidized domestic industries.
These nations also aggressively sought to acquire colonies, viewing them as essential sources of natural resources and captive markets for domestically manufactured goods. Consequently, England, France, and the Netherlands joined Spain and Portugal in establishing colonies in the Americas during the 16^{th} and 17^{th} centuries. From these colonies, they extracted commodities such as furs, hides, tobacco, and most profitably, sugar.
Criticisms of Mercantilism
Critics of mercantilism, including prominent thinkers like David Hume and Adam Smith, argued that the system inherently led to inflation and ultimately harmed consumers. Adam Smith, in particular, contended that wealth was not a finite resource, asserting that all nations could prosper. He advocated for an economy naturally regulated by competition among producers rather than being subjected to government management and control.
5.4 The Atlantic Slave Trade
Scale and Mechanism
To extract wealth from their colonies, European nations, from the late 15^{th} to the early 19^{th} centuries, forcibly transported approximately 12 million enslaved African people across the Atlantic Ocean via the brutal Middle Passage. About 10 million survived the journey to fulfill the intense labor demands of European planters, who cultivated lucrative cash crops such as sugar, rice, and tobacco. These agricultural goods were then shipped to Europe, where they were processed into finished products. These finished products, in turn, were shipped to Africa to purchase more captives from other Africans, completing the infamous three-legged exchange known as the triangular trade.
Impact on Africa and Europe
The Atlantic slave trade inflicted immense demographic and economic damage on parts of Africa, leading to severe population losses. The influx of European manufactured goods also undermined and harmed local African industries. In the Americas, the majority of enslaved people were forced to labor on sugar plantations in the Caribbean and Brazil. This work was exceptionally hard and dangerous, resulting in high mortality rates. Despite the horrific conditions, enslaved people forged community ties and found ways to preserve their human dignity and aspects of their culture. Europeans, meanwhile, profited immensely from their forced labor, enriching many industries through both the slave trade itself and the sugar production that was entirely dependent upon it.
Chapter 6: Imperialism and Industrialization
6.1 European Colonization in the Americas
Diverse Motivations for Settlement
European settlers in North America comprised a diverse group with a wide array of motives for colonization:
Spaniards: Primarily driven by the pursuit of "God, Gold, and Glory."
French: Also sought wealth but were more inclined than other Europeans to cooperate with Indigenous peoples, viewing them as economic allies rather than targets for exploitation.
English (Virginia Company): Founded Jamestown with the specific aim of generating wealth.
English Puritans: Established communities with the dual goals of earning profits and promoting their religious ideology.
Indigenous Responses to Colonization
Native peoples responded to European colonization in varied ways:
Aztecs (Mexico): Fought fiercely against the Spanish but were ultimately destroyed.
Tlaxcalans (Mexico): Collaborated with the Spanish against the Aztecs, a decision that resulted in greater status and economic opportunities within the Spanish Empire for their people.
6.2 The Rise of a Global Economy
New Balance of Power: The Seven Years' War
The Seven Years' War ( 1754–1763) significantly reshaped the balance of power in Europe, with Britain emerging as the dominant imperial force. As a result, France ceded its imperial possessions in North America and India to Britain, Spain surrendered Florida, and France transferred control of the Louisiana Territory to Spain. The Peace of Hubertusburg solidified Prussian control of Silesia and confirmed its status as a major power in Europe.
British and Chinese Trade Dynamics
The British East India Company provided Britain with a strong military and economic foundation in South Asia, enabling both the company and the British nation to benefit economically from their colonial control of India. In China, the Qing dynasty's leaders concluded new trade treaties, including the Treaty of Kyakhta ( 1727) with Russia, and improved trading relationships with Japan, Southeast Asian nations, and the Philippines. Under the Canton system, China expanded its trade with Europe and boosted its economy. Crucially, China largely rejected most European trade goods, insisting on payment in silver, which resulted in a highly favorable balance of trade for the Qing dynasty.
Opposition to European Colonialism
European colonialism did not proceed unopposed throughout the world:
Africa: The Ndongo clashed with the Portuguese, the Khoisan and Xhosa peoples resisted the Dutch, and the Asante opposed British expansion.
India and China: People in both regions took up arms against Britain.
North America: Ironically, some of the most significant opposition to Great Britain's role originated from its own colonies in North America, where economic dissatisfaction ultimately led to a declaration of independence.
6.3 Capitalism and the First Industrial Revolution
Wealth Generation and Worker Exploitation
Stimulated and enabled by capitalism, mechanization and industrialization generated immense wealth for business owners and middle-class professionals during the 18^{th} and 19^{th} centuries. However, these profits often came at a severe cost to workers. The production of goods transitioned from the skilled handiwork of middle-class artisans to mechanized processes performed by low-paid, unskilled laborers. While workers gained access to new consumer goods made cheaper by industrialization, affording these goods necessitated working long hours under difficult and often dangerous conditions. Crucially, workers lost control over their working conditions.
Enlightenment Limitations and the Rise of Marxism
Although the Enlightenment laid important foundations for the defense of human rights, its influence was largely confined to a small elite segment of society. Despite its emphasis on ideals of freedom and liberty, the Enlightenment coexisted with oppressive institutions such as slavery and colonialism. In response to the worst abuses of capitalism, Karl Marx and his followers proposed a new theory known as Marxism. Marx argued that the bourgeoisie—the social class that owned the means of production—was primarily motivated by the desire to exploit labor and retain the excess value produced by wage earners, which they then used to acquire political influence. He predicted that the capitalist system would eventually collapse, leading workers to reclaim control of society. Marx posited that the struggle between social classes was the fundamental root of all historical conflicts and theorized that society would ultimately replace existing economic systems with socialism, a system in which the public, rather than private companies or individuals, owns the means of production.
Chapter 7: Enlightenment and Revolutions
7.1 The Enlightenment
A New Intellectual Spirit
The 18^{th} century ushered in a new era of intellectual exchange in Europe, known as the Enlightenment. This movement was inspired by the critical thinking spirit of the Scientific Revolution, the ideas of the Italian Renaissance, and the lasting legacy of Muslim, Greek, and Indian scientific foundations. The Enlightenment centered on the pivotal role of reason, fostering a newfound optimism in philosophical principles such as liberty, individual rights, and the rejection of tyranny. These ideals spurred many members of the upper and middle classes in western Europe to question the legitimacy of traditional laws, political systems, and entrenched religious teachings.
7.2 The Exchange of Ideas in the Public Sphere
Venues for Intellectual Discourse
Throughout the 17^{th} and 18^{th} centuries, the public sphere grew into an increasingly vital component for the dissemination and development of Enlightenment ideas. Networks of informal socialization and intellectual exchange flourished in various venues:
Coffeehouses: Provided a setting where people from all social backgrounds who possessed the luxury of leisure could freely share ideas and opinions without fear of repercussions from the state or church.
Salons: Served as important centers for philosophical discussion. They also enabled a small number of upper and middle-class women who hosted them to assume leadership roles within the Enlightenment, though guests from less privileged backgrounds were generally excluded.
Facilitators of Idea Exchange
Alongside the emergence of academies, print shops, and a flourishing long-distance community of writers, salons and coffeehouses collectively ensured the development of a vibrant public sphere that actively stimulated the free and open exchange of Enlightenment ideas.
7.3 Revolutions: America, France, and Haiti
Deepening Inequalities and Revolutionary Impulses
Over the course of the 18^{th} century, a series of famines and economic crises intensified wealth inequality and restricted access to political power across the Atlantic world. The growing influence of the public sphere and Enlightenment ideals of equality and liberty fueled opposition to colonial rule and monarchical privilege. This culminated in a series of revolutionary movements by the end of the century, leading to the adoption of novel democratic systems.
Key Revolutions and Their Consequences
American Revolution: Initiated the revolutionary era and laid the foundation for the newly formed United States of America. However, it established a paradoxical model of political liberty that controversially coexisted with the institution of slavery.
French Revolution: Inspired by the American colonists' victory over the British monarchy, leaders of the French Revolution established a political model based on principles of democratic rights and equality. Yet, they grappled with significant challenges stemming from intense political factionalism and ongoing economic crises.
Haitian Revolution: Represented the most radical break from the past, as it successfully toppled the French colonial government, decisively challenged the institution of slavery, and created the new nation of Haiti. Despite this profound achievement, Haiti faced long-term economic challenges after France imposed a substantial independence debt on the fledgling nation in 1825.
Enduring Impact
Although these revolutions reflected a diversity of political aims and consequences, each fundamentally reshaped the political landscape of the Atlantic world by challenging traditional models of monarchical privilege and questioning deeply entrenched disparities in wealth and access to political power.
7.4 Nationalism, Liberalism, Conservatism, and the Political Order
Post-Revolutionary Ideologies
As the revolutionary fervor of the 18^{th} century subsided, a pervasive desire to restore order and stability permeated the political and intellectual atmosphere of Europe. The ideologies of conservatism, nationalism, and liberalism emerged, representing distinct approaches to safeguarding the revolutionary gains of the past century and temporarily quieting the turbulence of the era.
Shifting Political Landscape
These gains proved relatively short-lived, as political upheaval once again irrevocably transformed Europe by the mid-19^{th} century. In the specific cases of Italy and Germany, the desire for national unification ultimately superseded the desire for individual freedom, leading to the birth of new nation-states. While the forces of nationalism and conservatism reversed some democratic advancements—particularly those rooted in notions of the social contract and individual liberty—liberal principles such as religious toleration and equality before the law continued to exert a powerful and lasting influence on the rise and development of the modern nation-state.