The Religion of Ancient Egypt: Pantheon and Afterlife
The Religion of Ancient Egypt: Pantheon and Afterlife Views
Overview of Ancient Egyptian Religion
The ancient Egyptians were an profoundly religious people, a characteristic that remained consistent throughout all periods of their history.
Religious ideas and practices permeated every aspect of daily life for every Egyptian person, not just the king, court, priests, or elite classes.
The fundamental key to understanding Egyptian religious traditions is recognizing their extreme symbolism.
Egyptians used symbols—either as drawn, painted, or carved pictures, or as crafted items—to represent complex ideas.
A thorough study of these various symbols is essential for learning about Egyptian religion.
The religion was distinctly polytheistic, meaning they believed in the existence of many gods.
The term derives from two Greek words: ext{πολύς} ("many") and ext{θεός} ("god").
While they exhibited some henotheistic tendencies, ordinary Egyptians typically worshipped numerous gods, rather than focusing solely on one locally popular deity.
Polytheism was the prevailing norm during the pre-Christian era.
In polytheistic systems, gods are not consistently imagined as omniscient, omnipresent, or omnibenevolent.
However, the major deities of Egypt were generally not perceived as hostile to humanity.
Egyptian people sought their help, blessings, and protection.
Characteristics of the Egyptian Pantheon
Similar to other polytheistic cultures like Mesopotamia and Greece, the gods within the Egyptian pantheon each possessed distinct personalities and priorities.
Each deity held special power or authority over specific domains.
Furthermore, they all shared close connections to nature and natural phenomena.
This could be a specific animal or plant, or an abstract force of nature.
This connection stems from the Egyptian belief that the universe originated supernaturally.
They believed the created world remained infused with divine influence and majesty.
This divine infusion served as the perceived explanation for:
All the variety observed in nature, attributed to the multitude of gods and goddesses.
All the opposing extremes found in nature, such as beauty and ugliness, order and chaos, life and death, safety and danger, war and peace.
Anthropomorphized Gods
A striking and often confusing feature of the Egyptian pantheon is the depiction of many gods and goddesses with human bodies and animal heads.
Both aspects require explanation.
Human Body Depictions:
The reason many gods appear with human or mostly human bodies is not necessarily because Egyptians believed gods literally looked like people.
Instead, this is a practice known as anthropomorphism.
The word originates from two Greek roots: the noun ext{ἄνθρωπος} ("man, person, human") and the verb ext{μόρφω} ("change").
Anthropomorphism simply means describing a non-human deity using familiar human shapes or images.
This approach is used because there is no other way to represent a being that is 100\% "other" or non-human.
The Bible frequently employs this, for example, when it states the Israelites were freed from Egyptian slavery "by the strong arm of the LORD."
Animal Head Depictions:
The animal heads also have a similar explanatory basis.
It does not imply that Egyptians believed a goddess like Horus was literally a huge bird.
Rather, gods are often imagined as possessing attributes or personalities that cannot be accurately represented by any human form alone.
For instance, the goddess Sekhmet is linked with ferocity, rage, destruction, and danger.
While a human can experience these emotions and cause destruction, it is not considered natural or good for a person to embody them fully.
Conversely, lions are inherently characterized by such attributes in nature.
Therefore, Sekhmet is depicted in art with the head of a lion, signifying that she shares similar attributes with the animal.
Main Deities of the Egyptian Pantheon
Within the realm of the gods, a clear and undeniable hierarchy existed, mirroring Egyptian society, with some deities being immensely important and others quite obscure.
Amun
Amun was an exceptionally important and powerful deity.
He was particularly revered at Thebes in Upper Egypt (modern Luxor), a city that served as the capital of Egypt during parts of the Middle Kingdom and much of the New Kingdom.
Amun was regarded as the king among all gods, and in some traditions, he was credited with creating the world.
His pre-eminence reached its peak during the Egyptian New Kingdom period, securing him the top position in the pantheon.
Unlike some other deities, Amun does not possess a specific 'special skill' or designated jurisdiction.
In temple and tomb wall paintings, he is usually depicted on a royal throne as the supreme ruler of Egypt, with the human king of Egypt ruling on Amun's behalf.
He is commonly shown holding a scepter and wearing a crown, often the 'dual-plumed' crown, which symbolizes additional authority.
Most frequently, he is depicted in a fully human form.
Alternatively, he might be shown with a bluish-green ram's head, featuring curved horns (and sometimes a sun disk between them).
His epithet translates to "Amun-Ra, King of the Gods, Lord of Heaven" ( ext{ỉmn rˁ nswt nṯr nb pt}).
Amun is even mentioned in the Bible, specifically in Jeremiah 46:25: "JEHOVAH of hosts, the god of Israel, has said: ‘Behold me, visiting Amun of Thebes…and visiting Pharaoh and Egypt and her gods and her kings and Pharaoh and those who trust in him!’ (MTH)."
Raˁ (Re)
Raˁ (Re) was another extremely important god, a solar deity whose name also means 'sun'.
His principal temple center was in a very ancient Egyptian city known in Greek (during the Ptolemaic Period) as Heliopolis ( ext{Ἡλιούπολις}), or "Sun-City."
The ancient Egyptians referred to it as Iunu ( ext{ỉwnw}).
Little remains of the city or Raˁ's temples today, as medieval Cairo was built over its ruins, and many remnants were dismantled and re-used.
The Egyptians logically believed that all life on Earth is utterly and completely dependent on the light and warmth of the sun.
Consequently, all their works of art are thoroughly permeated with sun-symbolism.
The regular and correct worship of Raˁ was considered of utmost importance.
Depiction:
He is typically depicted as a falcon-headed god (similar to Horus) with a human body.
Above his head is a large, fiery-red sun disk encircled by a cobra (uraeus), symbolizing Raˁ's power to inflict instant death upon enemies.
Notably, when he is depicted traversing the Underworld, he takes on the head of a ram.
Association with Kingship:
The cobra (uraeus) positioned over Raˁ's head is meant to resemble the uraeus device worn on the front of the Egyptian king's crown.
During the Old Kingdom (especially the Vth Dynasty), Raˁ became closely associated with the kings of Egypt.
Thereafter, most kings adopted names that included mention of Raˁ, aiming to intimately connect the king with him.
Sometimes, the king of Egypt was almost identified as the human manifestation of Raˁ, akin to the Christian theology of Jesus as the incarnation of the God of Israel.
Excellent examples include the IVth Dynasty kings Khafreˁ ( ext{ḫˁ.f}) and Neferirkareˁ, whose names mean "Ra has appeared" and "Beautiful Soul of Ra" respectively.
Note on Honorific Transposition: The Ra-part of the name in a cartouche is read last, even if written first, as a sign of respect for the god.
Kings were also frequently referred to as ext{Seȝ Raˁ} (Son of Ra).
The most famous Egyptian king, Ramesses II, bore a name meaning "Child of Ra."
The Sun Cycle and its Importance:
The special importance of the sun-cult derived from the critical role of the 'sun cycle' in Egyptian life and thought.
Each morning, the sun appears to rise from the ocean on the eastern horizon.
Throughout the day, it crosses the entire sky, providing light and enabling life.
Then, it descends back into the sea on the western horizon and travels through the Underworld, the land of the dead.
The next morning, it reappears once again on the eastern horizon at its place of rising.
This daily cycle was perceived as a powerful symbol of the precious life-cycle: birth, death, and re-birth.
This same cycle—life, and then after death, life-after-death—was the ultimate goal for all Egyptians.
Egyptian Cosmology:
The Egyptians believed the Earth is flat, resting on the oceans, and the sky is blue for the same reason the ocean and the Nile are blue—due to abundant water overhead.
The atmosphere in which humans live was conceived as a bubble of air.
Note: This depiction of the world is essentially consistent with that found in the biblical Book of Genesis ( ext{Genesis 1:1-8 NASB}).
The Egyptians believed that each day, Raˁ traversed the blue, watery heaven in his special boat (a 'bark').
Each night, he passed through the Underworld on his journey back to the eastern horizon.
Every night, while in the Underworld, Raˁ had to combat various demons and supernatural evils belonging to the realm of the dead.
Human worship, prayers, and rituals dedicated to Raˁ were believed to assist him in successfully performing this daily function, which in turn sustained life on Earth.
Amun-Raˁ
The mutual importance of the gods Amun and Raˁ eventually led the Egyptians to merge them into the concept of a single god with multiple 'sides' to his personality.
This fused deity is known as Amun-Raˁ.
The amalgamation of the two deities occurred during the New Kingdom period.
The most famous monumental structure dedicated to him is the temple-complex known as the Precinct of Amun-Raˁ (commonly referred to as Karnak Temple).
This is an enormous temple property situated at ancient Thebes in Upper Egypt, which served as the capital during part of the Middle Kingdom and most of the New Kingdom.
It is the second-most visited site by tourists in all of Egypt, after the Great Pyramids of Giza.
Other Significant Deities
Thoth: Represented with the head of an ibis (bird), Thoth was considered the cleverest of the gods and credited with inventing the hieroglyphic writing system.
Atum: The god Atum was the creative force responsible for creating the world. He is usually depicted in a fully human form, wearing the royal cloth-crown of an Egyptian king. Like Raˁ, his main cult center was at Iunu/Heliopolis. His power was believed to lift the Egyptian king's spirit in the Afterlife to dwell among the stars with the gods.
Hathor: The goddess Hathor is the daughter of Raˁ and is adorned with a red sun symbol above her head. Her primary symbolism, however, is the cow; in her human form, she typically has a cow's horns overhead. She is venerated as the symbolic mother of the Egyptian king. Her main associations in Egyptian life are music, dance, and sexual love.
Anubis: Anubis and Sokar are predominantly funerary gods, meaning their divine roles primarily concern the afterlife or its preparation. Anubis is depicted with the head of a black dog and sometimes entirely as a black dog. Egyptologists are uncertain whether Anubis is a dog or a jackal. He is considered the guardian of tombs and mummies. During the mummification process, it was common for one of the leading priests to wear an Anubis-mask.
Sokar: Sokar is depicted with the head of a hawk, indicative of his funerary aspect. He is particularly associated with the mixing of aromatic substances used as ointments in mummification rituals. He was especially venerated at Memphis and at the royal necropolis of Saqqara, which likely derives its name from him. Sometimes, he is amalgamated with Ptaḥ, the other major god of Memphis, viewed as two complementary aspects of the same deity. heuristic He is usually seen wearing white mummy wrappings, with any visible skin in a bluish-green hue.
Geb and Nut:
The Earth itself was personified by the divine Geb, who is pictured either as a human with a duck on his head or entirely as a duck.
His sister and wife is the goddess Nut, who represents the sky (though the word for sky is ext{pet}).
These two deities ultimately produced divine children, primarily the figures central to the Osiris-myth.
In most depictions, Geb (representing the land, covered with reeds) lies prostrate beneath Nut (representing the sky, covered with stars), with Nut arched from one end of Geb to the other, mimicking the apparent arch of heaven from horizon to horizon.
Raˁ (the sun) traverses the sky in his sacred bark. Often, the king of Egypt is also shown in the middle, helping to hold up the heaven, ensuring life in Egypt continues.
The Osiris Myth: Osiris, Isis, Seth, and Horus
The gods Osiris, Isis, Seth, and Horus are integral to a dramatic story in Egyptian mythology and were all extremely important figures in the pantheon.
The Story Highlights:
Osiris was the divine ruler of Egypt long ago.
His jealous brother Seth attacked and killed him.
Osiris's wife, Isis, found him and used her divine power to revive him just enough for him to continue living in the Underworld.
Their son, Horus, later fought and defeated Seth to regain rule over Egypt and restore order.
Osiris:
Because of his death at the hands of Seth, Osiris is always associated with the Duat/Underworld.
He is invariably clothed in mummy-wrappings or burial garments.
His skin is depicted as bluish-green, either to represent the precious stone lapis lazuli or to signify his deceased state.
He wears the crown of Upper Egypt and has a fully human-looking form.
He goes by the epithet Wenenefer, meaning "always beautiful."
Due to his associations with death and the Afterlife, he is extremely important, likely mentioned in texts more than any other god.
The battle between Osiris and Seth was easily interpreted to represent the early antagonism between Upper and Lower Egypt, with Osiris representing Upper Egypt.
Seth:
The evil brother of Osiris, Seth embodies chaos, confusion, and lawlessness.
He killed Osiris by drowning him in the Nile and dismembering him into pieces (which were later restored by Isis).
Isis:
She was the sister and wife of Osiris, together forming a divine analogy to the human king and queen of Egypt.
She is depicted in human form, though she may have wings.
In the myth, she mourns Osiris and attends to his funeral rites.
Horus:
The beloved son of Osiris and Isis.
He exists in a human-form, but with the head of a falcon.
Because he overthrew Seth, banished chaotic influence, and restored order and justice, he was prioritized by kings and frequently associated with kingship.
Eye of Horus Symbolism ( ext{wadjet} or ext{ỉrt ḥrw}):
After Osiris's murder, Horus sought to avenge his father and restore order by attacking Seth.
He defeated Seth, sending him fleeing back to the wilderness, but was badly wounded, losing his eyeballs (which falcons need).
Afterward, the goddess Hathor (consort of Horus) retrieved Horus’s eyes and fully healed them.
From that point, the 'Eye of Horus' became a symbol for restoration after physical destruction—signifying resurrection (in the case of death) or healing (in the case of sickness).
The symbol is ubiquitous in Egyptian art and hieroglyphic texts.
Its technical name is ext{wadjet} or simply ext{ỉrt ḥrw} ('eye of Horus').
People also used the device as a good-luck charm and a piece of jewelry.
Lesser-Known but Distinctive Deities
Ptaḥ: The main deity of Memphis (though worshipped universally), Ptaḥ is considered the creator god in some traditions (sometimes amalgamated with Atum). He is always depicted wearing a tight-fitting linen robe and a skull-cap, with bluish-green skin.
Nun: Represents the watery chaos from which the world emerged.
Ma’at: Embodies justice, truth, balance, and goodness.
Mut: The preeminent goddess of Thebes, serving as another mother-protectress figure for the king of Egypt.
Sekhmet: A lion-headed goddess associated with war, destruction, anger, and rage.
Ammit: A creature comprising mixed animal parts, she sits by at the Judgment and devours the wicked hearts.
Bastet: A feline goddess, originally a goddess of war, who transitioned to a goddess of the home, domestic protection, and women’s secrets. This transformation was inspired by the cat's role in chasing away mice and snakes from human spaces and food. Note: Egyptians did not "worship cats" directly, even though this is often wrongly claimed; they worshipped Bastet and, in her honor, treated all cats well.
Taweret: A female hippo goddess, Taweret is a protective deity of fertility and childbirth, inspired by the fierce protectiveness of female hippos over their young.
'Ankh Symbolism
One of the most common and important symbols from Egyptian religion is the ext{ˁanḫ} (pronounced /ankh/).
This symbol is used extensively in paintings, stone sculptures, and writing.
It is a glyph that literally represents a sandal-strap; when phonetic, it sounds like ext{ˁanḫ}.
The most significant word using this glyph is the noun ext{ˁanḫ}, meaning "life" (or the adjective meaning "alive").
When the glyph is used purely as a symbol (not in a word), it still signifies "life" or "living."
The 'ankh-device can be observed in the hands of deities in almost all prior slides.
It is frequently incorporated into the names of kings, such as the famous Tutankhamun, whose name literally means "the living image of Amun."
Understanding this symbol is crucial for interpreting Egyptian beliefs correctly.
Due to the prevalence of mortuary temples, funerary rituals, mummies, grand tombs, and gods of the Underworld, people sometimes incorrectly conclude that Egyptians were obsessed with death.
However, this is a misconception; they were obsessed with LIFE, specifically life-after-death, viewing death merely as a beginning.
The concept of achieving life-even-after-death was the central theme of all religious practice.
All funerary rituals and associated practices were meticulously designed for the purpose of restoring life after death.
Consequently, temple walls and papyrus paintings frequently depict images of gods imparting life itself into the mouths of human figures.
All About the Afterlife
Holy Space
Like most ancient peoples, the Egyptians held a three-tiered view of the universe:
The sky, or heaven, is called ext{pet}.
The Underworld is called ext{Duat}, where the gods await the dead.
The place where the sky and Underworld meet, i.e., the horizon, is called the ext{'aḥet}.
The Cycle of Life
The Egyptians believed in a life-cycle, perfectly exemplified by the daily sun-cycle. Their religious practices aimed for individuals to successfully achieve the fourth stage:
Stage 1: Becoming alive (vb. ext{ḫpr}, "become alive, come into life"). The tri-literal glyph for this sound is the scarab, or dung-beetle.
Stage 2: Living a long, happy life ( ext{ˁnḫ}).
Stage 3: Inevitable death ( ext{mt}) and then judgment before Osiris, Anubis, Thoth, and Ammit.
Stage 4 (hopefully): Continue living after death—i.e., ext{ḫpr} again, now a long, happy Afterlife in spirit-form. Hence, a cycle.
Concepts of the Spirit: Bȝ and Kȝ
The idea is that every human being possesses both a physical body and an inner spirit.
The name for this spirit is ext{bȝ} (pronounced /bah/).
It is written with the stork-glyph because the concept suggests the spirit can float or fly out of the body after death, flying to the Duat to face Osiris and judgment.
The afterlife ( ext{wḥm ˁnḫ}) that an Egyptian hoped to enjoy is not like Hindu 'reincarnation'; it does not involve being born into another physical body to live a second physical life on Earth.
Rather, the Afterlife is lived as a living spirit.
The same word for ext{bȝ} is sometimes spelled with a different glyph: a human head on a bird’s body, indicating the ext{bȝ} is the human soul in bird form.
This inner spirit, which continues after death and can fly, is what imparts a person's unique personality.
It is connected to one's true self, the part that experiences likes, dislikes, joy, and sadness—the unique essence that distinguishes one person from every other in the world.
This true, inner-self also has a name: ext{kȝ} (pronounced /kah/), spelled phonetically with two upraised hands.
Neither the ext{bȝ} nor the ext{kȝ} are material, despite being fundamentally connected to the physical body.
Judgment Post-Mortem
After death, the deceased person (specifically their ext{bȝ}) undergoes judgment.
Setting of the Judgment:
Osiris presides as the judge, flanked by Isis.
Horus guides the 'defendant' to the judge.
Thoth meticulously records, particularly the deceased person’s deeds during life.
Anubis stands by with the next defendant, his helper operating the scales of justice.
The Weighing of the Heart:
The deceased’s heart is weighed against a feather, symbolizing Ma'at (truth and justice).
If the person’s heart is pure and good, it will be as light as a feather.
However, if it is weighed down by guilt from treachery, dishonesty, violence, or inadequate worship of the gods, then Ammit stands ready to devour that wicked person.
Example Text from the Book of the Dead (Papyrus of Ani):
Thoth, judge of truth, addresses the Great Ennead (council of gods): "Hear this word of very truth. I have judged the heart of the deceased, and his soul stands as a witness for him. His deeds are righteous in the great balance, and no sin has been found in him. He did not diminish the offerings in the temples, he did not destroy what had been made, he did not go about with deceitful speech while he was on earth."
The Great Ennead responds to Thoth: "This utterance of yours is true. The vindicated Osiris Ani is straightforward, he has no sin, there is no accusation against him before us, Ammit shall not be permitted to have power over him. Let there be given to him the offerings which are issued in the presence of Osiris, and may a grant of land be established in the Field of Offerings as for the Followers of Horus."
Concerning Mummies and Mummification
Mummification was a practice in all phases of Egypt’s history.
In early history, only royal and noble individuals could afford this burial method.
Over time, mummification became the norm for almost everybody.
The process grew more elaborate and effective through generations.
The ancient Egyptian word for 'mummy' is ext{wỉ}, written using a specific mummy-determinative sign.
Tens of thousands of Egyptians were mummified over centuries, with mummies found whenever archaeologists excavate in Egypt.
The mummification of animals (e.g., pet cats) and babies who died in childbirth or infancy was also extremely common.
What Is Mummification?
Fundamentally, mummification was invented for a practical purpose: the physical preservation of the body.
However, the underlying reason for preserving the body was deeply spiritual.
A person’s ext{kȝ} is fundamentally connected to their unique physical body.
The core idea behind mummification was that if the body completely decomposed, the person’s ext{kȝ} could not experience an Afterlife, and thus the ext{kȝ} (which represents the true self) would cease to exist.
Therefore, mummification was entirely focused on preventing total decomposition.
This was achieved primarily by keeping the buried body thoroughly and completely DRY, as moisture causes rotting and decay.
The Process of Mummification
The mummification process was extremely tedious and time-consuming, lasting from 70 to 90 days.
It required the labor of specialized embalmers and priests.
It involved intricate physical procedures and many rituals had to be performed throughout.
These factors made mummification very expensive. In the early years of the united Egyptian kingdom, only the super-wealthy could afford it, though it grew more mainstream over time, despite remaining costly.
Steps of the Process:
Emptying Liquids: The first step was to open and tip the body to drain all liquids, mainly blood, water, and organ juices.
Organ Removal: Organs were surgically removed immediately, as moist, blood-filled organs are most prone to rapid decomposition.
The brain was extracted first, pulled out of the nose in pieces using a long, thin, metal hook.
A slit was then made along the left side of the torso to remove other internal organs.
Certain crucial organs—specifically the lungs, stomach, liver, and intestines—were wrapped in cloth strips and placed into specialized urns, known as canopic jars by Egyptologists, to be buried with the deceased. Other less important organs were discarded.
Canopic Jars: These were highly stylized containers, inscribed with hieroglyphic writing.
During the Old and Middle Kingdom periods, the lids were carved in the likeness of the deceased person’s head.
However, beginning in the New Kingdom, each jar was adorned with a carved deity’s head.
Specifically, images of the children of the god Horus were used:
Imsety (with a human head) held the liver.
Duamutef (with a jackal’s head) held the stomach.
Qebehsenuef (with a hawk’s head) held the intestines.
Ḥepy (with a baboon’s head) held the lungs.
These figures themselves often appeared mummified.
Washing and Stuffing: The entire body was thoroughly washed, both inside and out, first in palm wine, then water, and finally rubbed with spices. The emptied body was stuffed with sweet-smelling herbs, and the incision was usually sewn back up.
Natron Bath: The body then underwent a 'natron bath,' where it was buried in a tub filled with natron (primarily salt mixed with a substance similar to baking soda). The body remained in this state for 40 days to thoroughly dry it out, resulting in a leathery texture.
Oiling and Packing: After the 40-day period, the body was removed from the natron bath, gently covered with oils to make it clean and supple. The salt was removed from inside the body and replaced with copious amounts of dry cloth pieces, intended to soak up any remaining moisture and make the body appear less empty and sunken.
Wrapping: Finally, the entire body was meticulously wrapped in strips of cloth, known as mummy-wrappings. Special, valuable items (amulets, magical charms) were often delicately placed within these wrappings, and the corpse was then wrapped again to secure the amulets.
Coffin Placement: The corpse was then placed in a wooden coffin, which was typically nested inside a larger wooden coffin, the outermost of which was often painted to resemble the deceased.
The Opening-of-the-Mouth Ritual
This was the most crucial moment of the funeral rites, occurring late in the wrapping process, just before the head was fully covered.
A specialized tool, resembling a small crow-bar, was used to symbolically open the corpse’s mouth before the final wrappings.
Special incantations were spoken during this ritual.
Theoretical Purposes:
To allow free passage for the ext{kȝ} to fly in and out of the body as needed.
To enable the body to receive nourishment anytime it wished in the afterlife.
Food items, such as bread and beer, were also buried with the mummy.
Example Incantations:
"Oh [name], I fix your jaws, spread for you." ( ext{PT 37}: ext{hȝ NN ỉ.smn.n(ỉ) n.k ˁrtỉ.k psš.t})
"I part your mouth for you." ( ext{PT 38}: ext{wp.ỉ n.k r.k})
"Accept the eye of Horus…" ( ext{PT 39}: ext{NN mn.k ỉrt ḥrw})
Magical, Protective Spells
Mummies were often interred with special magical spells written on papyrus.
These various spells were intended to protect both the physical body and the spirit.
Throughout the wrapping process, the embalming priests recited numerous prayers and whispered various blessings and magical spells aimed at helping the mummy effectively serve its purpose.
Sources of Spells:
Pyramid Texts: Carved on the interior walls of certain kings’ pyramids during the Old Kingdom period.
Book of the Dead: Composed during the New Kingdom period for regular people, often written in hieratic script on papyrus, rolled up, and buried with the deceased.
Example Spells:
"Oh [name], you have not gone away dead; you have gone away alive…" ( ext{PT 213}: ext{hȝ NN nỉ šm.n.k ỉs mt.tỉ šm.n.k ˁnḫ.t})
"Dispatches of your ka’ have come for you!" ( ext{PT 214}: ext{ỉ wpwt kȝ.k ỉr.k})
"You do not perish. Your ka’ does not perish. You are ka’…" ( ext{PT 215}: ext{NN nỉ sk.k nỉ sk kȝ.k twt kȝ})
Why Mummify the Dead? (Summary of Reasons)
Symbols like the 'eye(s) of Horus' were often painted on the side of the coffin for good luck or to allow the body to 'see out' at will.
The mummified remains were ultimately buried in a secret or hard-to-reach place to ensure they remained undisturbed.
In addition to helping the ext{kȝ} continue existing, the preservation of the body also helped the deceased be recognizable to other spirits in the Afterlife.
While Egyptians were not the only ancient people who practiced mummification, they excelled at it more than any other civilization.
Their expertise was so profound that unwrapped mummies today provide literal visual evidence of what an ancient Egyptian person looked like, including details such as the wavy, reddish-blonde hair of Ramesses II.