Honey Bee Biology and Interactions (ENTOM 2030/2031)

Focus: This course is just about honey bees (specifically Apis mellifera).
Bee Diversity: There are over $20,000$ species of bees worldwide, $4,000$ in USA/Canada, and nearly $450$ species in NY state (including only one honey bee species, Apis mellifera).
Depth: An entire course can be filled with information solely about honey bees due to their complex biology and extensive interactions with humans.

Ancient History: Humans have interacted with honey bees for a very long time.
- Neolithic Era: Hunter-gatherers and early farming societies used beeswax.
- Ancient Egypt: Beekeeping was depicted in tombs, such as the Tomb of Pabasa (between $655$ and $585$ B.C.E.).
- Aristotle (between $344$ and $342$ B.C.E.):
  - Wrote about honey bees in History of Animals.
  - Observed average honey yields, how to protect bees from wasps, bees not flying before rain, and plants good for bees.
  - Mistakenly thought the queen bee was a “king bee,” demonstrating that one could keep bees without perfect biological understanding.
Honey Bees as Symbols:
- Abrahamic Religions: Phrases like “the land of milk and honey” symbolize bountiful territory.
- Ancient Greeks: Associated bees with the afterlife, imagining honey collected from “the other side.” Gold plaques (7th century BCE) found at Camiros, Rhodes, depicting winged bee goddesses (Thriae or older goddess).
- Myths: Bhramari, the goddess of bees, is depicted releasing an army of black bees to kill a demon unkillable by two-legged or four-legged beasts.
Modern Fascination:
- Manifests in media (e.g., movies, even if inaccurate in anatomical representation) and high fashion.
  - Alexander McQueen's 2013 pre-Spring haute couture collection featured bees.
  - Chanel and Dior's 2016 Spring haute couture collections also featured bees.
  - Bees featured on Labubu doll outfits.

Products of the Hive: Honey, beeswax, propolis, venom.
Pollination Services:
- Honey bees make important contributions to the pollination of plants, including valuable crops.
- Crop Value & Honeybee Pollination (2006 data based on Aizen & Harder, 2009; Hayes 2010):
  - Almonds: $2.2$ billion (100% pollinated by honeybees)
  - Apples: $2.1$ billion (90% pollinated by honeybees)
  - Blueberries: $0.5$ billion (90% pollinated by honeybees)
  - Oranges: $1.8$ billion (27% pollinated by honeybees)
  - Peaches: $0.5$ billion (48% pollinated by honeybees)
  - Soybeans: $19.7$ billion (5% pollinated by honeybees)
  - Cotton: $5.2$ billion (16% pollinated by honeybees)
  - Grapes: $3.2$ billion (1% pollinated by honeybees)
  - Strawberries: $1.5$ billion (2% pollinated by honeybees)
  - Peanuts: $0.6$ billion (2% pollinated by honeybees)
Impact on Food Production: Visual comparison of