APUSH Chapter 13

Introduction

Thomas Crawford’s Commission (1855)

• Prominent American sculptor Thomas Crawford was asked to design a statue for the Capitol dome in Washington, DC

• Proposed the Statue of Freedom, a female figure wearing a liberty cap

Jefferson Davis’s Objection

• Secretary of War and a major slaveholder, Jefferson Davis, rejected the liberty cap design

• The liberty cap:

  • Historically a symbol of liberty in the colonial era

  • Associated with the French Revolution

  • Linked to Ancient Rome as a “badge of the freed slave”

• Davis feared the symbol would connect slaves’ desire for freedom with American liberty, creating controversy

• Ordered the cap replaced with a feathered helmet, a military symbol

Crawford’s Death and Statue’s Assembly

• Crawford died in Italy in 1857, where he had spent much of his career

• The 15,000 pound statue was transported to the US in several pieces in 1859

• Assembled at a Maryland foundry by Philip Reed, a slave craftsman

Installation (1863)

• Installed atop the Capitol during the Civil War

• By this time, Jefferson Davis was president of the Confederate States of America

• Historical context: The dispute over the statue illustrates how debates over slavery permeated nearly every public issue by the mid 1850s

Fruits of Manifest Destiny

Continental Expansion

Slavery and Territorial Expansion

• In the 1840s, slavery became central to American politics

• Focus shifted from abolitionism to debates over slavery in newly acquired territories

Westward Expansion

• By 1840, most land east of the Mississippi River was in white hands following Indian removal

• Economic depression (1837) spurred westward migration

Oregon Trail Migration

• Oregon’s Willamette Valley attracted settlers due to its beauty and fertile land

• Migration details:

  • 1840-1845: Around 5000 settlers traveled the 2000 mile journey by wagon train

  • By 1860, nearly 300,000 people traveled to Oregon and California despite hardships:

    • Disease, starvation, and natural barriers like the Rocky Mountains

    • Occasional Indian attacks

National Boundaries and Settlements

• Oregon: Jointly administered by the US and Great Britain in the 1840s

• Utah: Part of Mexico during this period

• Settlers disregarded boundaries, moving westward regardless of national claims

Manifest Destiny

• The 1840s intensified belief in manifest destiny–the idea that the US was divinely destined to expand to the Pacific Ocean

• Manifest destiny became a key justification for westward expansion

The Mexican Frontier: New Mexico and California

Settlement of Oregon and Slavery

• Oregon’s settlement did not directly raise slavery issues

• Southern concerns: New states in the region were seen as inhospitable to slavery, alarming some southerners

Mexico's Independence (1821)

• Mexico became independent from Spain, nearly as large as the US, with 6.5 million people (⅔ of the US population)

• Northern provinces (California, New Mexico, Texas):

  • Sparsely settled and surrounded by Indian territories

US Influence in Northern Mexico

• Santa Fe Trail (opened 1821):

  • Linked Santa Fe with Independence, Missouri

  • Incorporated New Mexico into the US commercial sphere, overshadowing trade with Mexico

• By 1840, California was also commercially linked to the US (ex: New England ships trading with the region)

Mexican Land Policy and Californios

• 1834: Mexican government dissolved Catholic mission landholdings to reduce Church power and attracted settlers

• Result:

  • Lands transferred to Mexican cattle ranchers (Californios)

  • Californios:

    • Defined themselves as gente de razon (people of reason) versus Indians (gente sin razon)

American Interest in California

• 1846: Alfred Robinson (Boston migrant) published Life in California

• Advocated annexation, suggesting extending the “area of freedom” to California

The Texas Revolt

Early Settlement of Texas

• Tejanos: Non-Indian population of Spanish origin

• 1820: Moses Austin received a Spanish land grant to colonize Texas with Americans

  • After his death, his son Stephen Austin continued the plan under independent Mexico

  • Land sold to American settlers for 12 cents per acre

• Settlers were required to become Mexican citizens

Population Growth and Mexican Concerns

• By 1830, American settlers outnumber Tejanos

• 1830: Mexican government:

  • Annulled land contracts

  • Barred future US immigration to Texas to maintain control

• American settlers, led by Stephen Austin, demanded greater autonomy

• Some of the Tejan elite supported settlers, benefiting from economic alliances

Slavery Conflict

• Mexico had abolished slavery, but local authorities allowed settlers to bring slaves

• Tensions rose when Mexico’s ruler, General Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna, sent an army to enforce central authority in 1835

• Settlers accused Santa Anna of wanting to free their slaves and enslave them instead

Texas Revolt and Independence

• 1835: Texas revolt began; rebels formed a provisional government and declared independence

• March 6, 1836: Santa Anna’s army stormed the Alamo, killing 187 defenders

  • “Remember the Alamo” became the rallying cry

• April 1836: Sam Houston’s forces defeated Santa Anna at the Battle of San Jacinto

  • Santa Anna was forced to recognize Texan independence

• Sam Houston became the first president of the Republic of Texas

Union with the United States

• 1837: Texas Congress called for annexation to the US

• President Martin Van Burren shelved the issue to avoid political disputes over adding another slave state

• Despite this, settlers (many slave owners) continued moving to Texas for fertile cotton land

• By 1845, Texas population reached nearly 150,000

The Election of 1844

Revival of Texas Annexation

• President John Tyler revived annexation in 1844 to salvage his administration and gain southern support for reelection

• April 1844: John C Calhoun, Tyler’s secretary of state, linked Texas annexation to strengthening slavery in a leaked letter

• Southern leaders hoped Texas could be divided into multiple states, increasing southern power in Congress

Opposition from Clay and Van Buren

• Henry Clay (Whig candidate) and Martin Van Buren (Democratic candidate) met in Kentucky

• Both issued letters rejecting immediate annexation, fearing war with Mexico

• Their stance aimed to keep the slavery issue out of national politics

• Outcome:

  • Clay secured the Whig nomination

  • Van Buren lost southern Democratic support and failed to win the necessary ⅔ majority for nomination

Nomination of James K Polk

• Polk, a former governor of Tennessee, emerged as a “dark horse” candidate

  • Supported annexation and had strong ties to Andrew Jackson

• Polk was a slave holder with harsh conditions on his cotton plantations, where many enslaved people suffered high mortality rats and frequent escape attempts

• To appease northern Democrats, the party platform included:

  • “Reannexation” of Texas (implying Texas was part of the Louisiana Purchase)

  • “Reoccupation” of all of Oregon, popularized by the slogan “Fifty-four forty to fight” (claiming Oregon to its northern boundary)

Election of 1844

• Polk narrowly defeated Clay in a close election

  • Polk’s margin the popular vote was less than 2%

  • James G Birney (Liberty Party candidate) won 16,000 votes in New York, primarily from antislavery Whigs, which likely cost Clay the election

Texas Annexation

• March 1845: Congress declared Texas part of the United States, just days before Polk’s inauguration

The Road to War

James K Polk’s Defined Goals

• Reduce the tariff

• Reestablish the Independent Treasury system

• Settle the Oregon ownership dispute

• Bring California into the Union

Accomplishments

• Tariff Reduction & Treasury System: Quickly enacted by Congress

• Oregon Settlement (1846):

  • Agreement with Great Britain divided Oregon at the 49th parallel

  • Secured the Willamette Valley and Puget Sound harbor for the US

  • Northerners were disappointed, feeling betrayed by Polk’s campaign promise to claim all of Oregon (“Forty-four forty or fight”)

Efforts to Acquire California

• Polk sent an emissary to Mexico to purchase California, but Mexico refused negotiations

• By spring 1846, Polk planned military action to secure the region

Conflict with Mexico

• April 1846: American soldiers under Zachary Taylor entered the disputed territory between the Nueces River and the Rio Grande

• Fighting ensued, and Polk claimed Mexico had “shed blood upon American soil,” leading to a declaration of war

The War and Its Critics

Significance

• First American conflict fought primarily on foreign soil

• First war in which American troops occupied a foreign capital

• Majority of Americans supported the war, inspired by manifest destiny

• Critics feared the war aimed to expand slavery, not liberty

Opposition and Criticism

• Ulysses S Grant: Called the war “one of the most unjust ever waged by a stronger nation against a weaker nation.

• ”Henry Davidi Thoreau:

  • Jailed in 1846 for refusing to pay taxes as a protest against the war

  • Authored “On Civil Disobedience,” which inspired future advocates of nonviolent resistance, including Martin Luther King Jr.

  • Argued that imprisonment is the “true place of a just man” under and unjust government

Abraham Lincoln

• Elected to Congress in 1846; introduced the “spot resolutions”, questioning Polk’s claim that Mexicans had shed blood on American soil

• Criticized the president’s power to “make war at pleasure”

• His antiwar stance was unpopular in illinois, contributing to Democrats winning his seat in 1848

Legacy of Opposition

• Criticisms of the war and presidential authority to initiate conflicts would resonate in future debates about war and executive power

Combat in Mexico

Enlistment and Combat

• Over 60,000 American volunteers enlisted to fight

• Fighting occurred on three main fronts:

  • California:

    • June 1846: American insurrectionists declared California independent as the “bear flag republic” under Captain John C Fremont

    • July 1846: US Navy ended the republic, raising the American flag in Monterey and San Francisco

    • Late 1846: General Stephen W Kearny’s forces suppressed a Mexican uprising in southern California

  • New Mexico:

    • 1600 American troops occupied a Santa Fe without resistance

  • Central Mexico:

    • February 1847: General Zachary Taylor defeated Santa Anna’s army at the Battle of Buena Vista

    • September 1847: General Winfield Scott captured Mexico City after marching inland from Veracruz

Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (1848)

• Terms:

  • Confirmed US annexation of Texas

  • Ceded California, New Mexico, Arizona, Nevada, and Utah to the US (the Mexican Cession)

  • US paid Mexico 15M

  • Defined new territorial boundaries (excluding the Gadsden Purchase in 1853 and Alaska acquisition in 1867)

• Impact:

  • US absorbed 500,000 square miles–⅓ of Mexico’s territory

  • Divided families, severed trade routes, and split regions long united

  • Estimated 75,000-100,000 Spanish speaking Mexicans and 150,000+ Indians lived in the Mexican Cession

  • Treaty guaranteed rights to “male citizens” of the Mexican Cession but referred to Native Americans as “savage tribes”

Legacy and Perception

• US: Mexican War remains a footnote in historical memory with few public monuments

• Mexico:

  • Viewed as “the dismemberment”, central to their national history and a lasting source of resentment

  • Criticism of the war for being launched over Mexico’s refusal to sell its territory

• Identity Shift:

  • Former Mexican citizens became Americans without migration

  • Indians were disregarded and forced to adapt to US governance

The Texas Borderland

Relations Between Anglos and Tejanos

• Initially allies during the Texas Revolution, relations soured post-independence

• Anglos:

  • Expelled some Tejanos, including former allies, accusing them of loyalty to Mexico

  • Took control of land and resources

• Juan Seguin:

  • Key Tejano leader in the revolt and later mayor of San Antonio

  • Driven out in 1842 by vigilantes, feeling like “a foreigner in (his) native land”

Cultural Pressures on Tejanos

• Anglos pushed for assimilation and Americanization

• Responses:

  • Some Tejano families sent children to Protestant English-language schools

  • Most retained Catholicism despite the church’s declining power under US rule

• Economic Impact:

  • Tejanos often relegated to unskilled agricultural or urban labor

  • Some used their ambiguous identities to avoid Confederate drafts during the Civil War by claiming Mexican citizenship

Conflicts in Southern texas

• Disputed Territory: Land between the Nueces River and the Rio Grande:

  • Claimed by both Texas and mexico but controlled by Comanche Indians

  • Became a constant site of conflict

• Comanche Power

  • Persisted despite Texas joining the US

  • Only broken in the 1860s and 1870s through military campaigns

Race and Manifest Destiny

Manifest Destiny and Racial Ideology

• Expansionism fueled by belief in the superiority of the “Anglo-Saxon race”:

  • Defined in opposition to non-Anglo groups: blacks, Indians, Hispanics, Catholics

  • Emphasized by John L O’Sullivan and others as key to national history and freedom

Race in the 19th Century

• Broad concept tied to color, culture, national origin, class, and religion

• Linked American liberty to supposed traits of Anglo-Saxon Protestants

Conquest of Mexico

• Framed as progress, civilization, and liberty vs Catholic Church tyranny and “mongrel races”

• Annexing all of Mexico rejected partly due to fears about assimilating its non-white Catholic population

Impact of American Racial Systems in New Territories

• Texas Constitution After Independence:

  • Protected slavery

  • Denied civil rights to Indians and persons of African origin

  • Allowed only whites to purchase land; barred free blacks from entering Texas

  • A free black resident describing the removal of “every privilege dear to a free man”

• Racial Definitions in Former Mexican Territories:

  • “Spanish” Mexicans in Texas, especially elites, defined as white

  • In New Mexico, residents of mexican and Indian origin deemed “too Mexican” for self-government

  • Slow white migration delayed New Mexico’s statehood until 1912

Gold-Rush California

Population Before the Gold Rush

• Non-Indian population fewer than 15,000 (1840s)

• Before 1848, more emigrants traveled to Oregon than California

Discovery of Gold (1848)

• Found in Sierra Nevada foothills at Johann A Sutter's sawmill

• Sparked global gold mania, spreading via newspapers

Population Boom

• 1848-1852: Non-Indian population rose to 200,000

• By 1860: Population exceeded 360,000

• San Francisco: Grew from 1000 in 1848 to 30,000 by 1850, becoming a racially and ethnically diverse city

Diverse Migrants

• From Mexico, South America, the eastern US, Ireland, Germany, Italy, Australia

• Nearly 25,000 Chinese (1849-1852)

  • Mostly young men under long-term labor contracts

Demographics and Gender Roles

• Majority of migrants were young men (unlike family farmers on other frontiers)

• Women: Ran restaurants, boarding houses, worked as laundresses, cooks, and prostitutes

• Male-to-female ratio (1860): Nearly 3 to 1

California and the Boundaries of Freedom

Transition to Underground Mining

• Surface mines quickly depleted

• Underground mining required significant capital investment

Racial and Ethnic Conflicts

• Fierce competition for gold worsened tensions

• White miners formed groups to expel “foreign miners” (Mexicans, Chileans, Chinese, French, and American Indians)

• State legislature impose a $20/month tax on foreign miners, forcing many to leave

Law and Order

• Law enforcement was weak in gold-rush California

• “Committees of vigilance” (1851, 1856):

  • Took control of San Francisco

  • Bypassed courts to try and execute alleged criminals

Boundaries of Freedom

• California's 1850 constitution restricted rights to whites:

  • Only whites could vote or testify in court

  • Indians Asians, and blacks excluded

• Some Californio (Spanish-descended) landowners were deemed white, but many lost land to settlers from the East due to court challenges

Impact on Native Americans

• Gold seekers destroyed Indian communities

• Miners, ranchers, and vigilantes killed thousands of Indians

• State paid bounties to militias to attack Native populations

• Indian children declared “orphans” or “vagrants” were enslaved

• Indian population reduced from 150,000 (post-Mexican War) to 30,000 by 1860

Opening Japan

Impact of the Mexican War on Trade

• US gained key harbors: San Diego and San Francisco

• Harbors facilitated trade with the Far East

• 1848-1860, American trade with China tripled

Opening of Japan

• Japan had been closed to foreign contact for over two centuries

• In 1853-1854, Commodore Matthew Perry led US warships into Tokyo Harbor to negotiate a trade treaty

  • Sent by President Millard Fillmore

  • Used military presence and cultural displays (ex: a musical pageant with a minstrel show) to pressure Japanese leaders

• Japan opened two ports to American shipping in 1854

Further US Japan Relations

• Townsend Harris became the first US consul to Japan in 1856

• Persuaded Japan to:

  • Open more ports to US ships

  • Establish full diplomatic relations

Consequences for Japan

• Inspired Japan to modernize

• Transformed into a regional military power

A Dose of Arsenic

Introduction

Territorial Expansion

• US victory in the Mexican War added over 1 million square miles to the country, larger than the Louisiana Purchase

• Acquisition raised the divisive issue of slavery’s expansion into the West

Ralph Waldo Emerson’s Prediction

• Emerson warned the US would be poisoned by taking Mexican territory, comparing it to swallowing arsenic

Fraying Bonds of Union

• The slavery issue began to disrupt the political system and pushed the nation toward civil war

• By 1844-1845, Methodists and Baptists (largest evangelical churches) split into northern and southern branches over slavery 

Impact on National Unity

• Slavery’s introduction into American politics weakened the two-party system, once a major force for national unity

The Wilmot Proviso

Statues of Slavery Before 1846

• Slavery’s status was settled by state law or the Missouri Compromise (applied to Louisiana Purchase territories)

• New land acquisitions reopened the issue of slavery’s expansion

Wilmot Proviso (1846)

• Proposed by Congressman David Wilmot of Pennsylvania to prohibit slavery in all territory acquired from Mexico

• Northerners (both Democrats and Whigs) supported it; Southerners opposed it

• Passed in the House (North held majority), but failed in the Senate (even balance of free and slave states)

• HIghlighted the growing sectional division in the US

Free Soil Party (1848)

• Formed by opponents of slavery’s expansion

• Nominated Martin Van Buren for president and Charles Francis Adams as vice president

• Van Buren’s campaign resonated with northern anti-slavery sentiment, gaining 300,000 votes (14% of the northern total)

“Popular Sovereignty” Proposal

• Introduced by Democratic candidate Lewis Cass of Michigan

• Suggested settlers in new territories should decide on slavery themselves

Election of 1848

• Whig candidate Zachary Taylor (Mexican War hero and Louisiana sugar planter) won the presidency

• The Free Soil Party’s presence demonstrated the spread of anti-slavery sentiment beyond abolitionist circles

• Senator William H Seward remarked, “Antislavery is at length a respectable element in politics”

The Free Soil Appeal

Appeal of the Free Soil Position in the North

• More popular when abolitionism, which demanded immediate emancipation and equal rights for blacks

• Congress had precedents for keeping territories free from slavery (ex: Northwest Ordinance of 1787, Missouri Compromise of 1820-1821)

• Many northerners resented perceived southern domination of federal government policies

Key Points of Free Soil Ideology

• Prevented creation of new slave states

• Aligned with policies like protective tariffs and internal improvements, which southern leaders opposed

• Promised economic opportunities in the West, appealing to northerners who linked land ownership with economic freedom

• Advocated barring slavery from western territories and providing free homesteads to settlers

Economic Appeal of Free Soil to Northerners

• Depression of the early 1840s emphasized land ownership as key to combating unemployment and low wages

• Labor movement supported access to western lands for economic betterment

• “Freedom of the soil” was seen as an alternative to economic dependence for American workers

Racial Dimensions of Free Soil Movement

• Opposed expansion of slavery to avoid competition with slave plantations

• Wilmot Proviso framed as advancing the rights of “free white men” rather than sympathy for enslaved people

• Free Soil ideology appealed to widespread northern racism, as it sought to prevent competition with “black labor”

Southern Opposition to Free Soil

• Viewed as a violation of equal rights, as Southerners believed they had fought for the Mexican territories and deserved to share in their benefits

• Believed slavery must expand to survive, as the South’s political and economic power depended on it

• Feared the admission of new free states would upset the balance of power, leaving the South a permanent minority in the Union

Crisis and Compromise

Developments in Europe (1848)

• “Springtime of Nations”: A period of democratic uprisings and national independence movements in Europe

  • Chartist movement in Great Britain organized for democratic reforms

  • France replaced its monarchy with a republic

  • Hungary declared independence from Austrian rule

  • Patriots in Italy and Germany demanded national unification

• Outcome: Revolutionary movements largely failed, with many crushed or reversed:

  • Chartism faded, France’s Second Republic was replaced by Emperor Napoleon III

  • Revolts in Budapest, Rome, and other cities were suppressed 

• American Concerns: Observers questioned whether their experiment in self-government  might also fail, similar to Europe’s revolutions

The Compromise of 1850

• Background: Rising tensions over slavery, particularly after new territories were acquired following the Mexican War

  • California’s request for admission as a free state raised fears among Southerners about upsetting the sectional balance in Congress

• Henry Clay’s Plan

1. California Admission: Enter the Union as a free state

2. Slave Trade Abolished: Ban the slave trade (but not slavery) in Washington, DC

3. Fugitive Slave Law: Introduce a stringent new law to help Southerners reclaim runaway slaves

4. Territorial Decisions on Slavery: Allow local white inhabitants to decide the status of slavery in new territories acquired from Mexico

5. Texas Debt Paid Off: The federal government would assume Texas’s debt accrued during its independence

The Great Debate

Key Figures and Positions

• Daniel Webster (Massachusetts):

  • Supported compromise to preserve sectional balance

  • Willing to abandon the Wilmot Proviso and accept a stronger fugitive slave law

• John C Calhoun (South Carolina):

  • Too ill to speak, but his remarks were read by a colleague

  • Rejected compromise, insisting slavery must be protected and extended into all new territories

  • Warned that the Union would not survive unless the North yielded to southern demands

• William H Seward (New York):

  • Opposed compromise, citing a “higher law” that the Constitution that condemned slavery–an appeal to morality and abolitionist ideals

President Zachary Taylor’s Stance

• Strong nationalist, despite being a southerner

• Opposed southern efforts to use California as leverage

• Called for California’s immediate admission to the Union without delay

Taylor’s Death and MIllard Fillmore’s Role

• Taylor died suddenly on July 9, 1850, of an intestinal infection

• Millard Fillmore (New York):

  • Succeeded Taylor as president

  • Supported Henry Clay’s proposals

  • Played a key role in breaking the Congressional deadlock and ensuring the Compromise of 1850 was adopted

The Fugitive Slave Issue

Key Provisions of the Fugitive Slave Act

• Allowed federal commissioners to decide the fate of alleged fugitive slaves without a jury trial or testimony from the accused

• Prohibited local authorities from interfering in fugitive captures

• Required individual citizens to assist federal agents in capturing fugitives when called upon

• Empowered federal agents to override local law enforcement in northern communities

Impact on Sectional Tensions

• Highlighted the inconsistency of southern leaders, who prioritized the security of slavery over their usual defense of states’ rights

• Affected all free states, even distant ones like California, where slave catchers pursued fugitives from Texas and New Mexico

• Federal tribunals ordered 157 fugitives returned to the South, further straining North-South relations

Reactions and Resistance

• Violent confrontations

  • 1851: A crowd in Syracuse, New York, freed escaped slave Jerry from jail and helped him escape to Canada

  • 1851: A slave owner attempting to recapture a fugitive was killed in Christiana, Pennsylvania

  • Margaret Garner, a fugitive from Kentucky, killed her daughter to prevent her return to slavery

• Increased efforts of the Underground Railroad

  • Abolitionists intensified their work, aided by the expanding northern railroad network

  • Sydney Howard Gay, an abolitionist editor, documented over 200 fugitives in his records in 1855-1856, many sent by train to Canada

Impact on African Americans

• Thousands of fugitives and free blacks fled to Canada, fearing capture under the Fugitive Slave Act

• Canada became a haven, challenging the image of the US as a symbol of liberty

• A Toronto newspaper in 1850 noted families fleeing the US, seeking protection under the British flag

Cultural Legacy

• The plight of fugitives inspired works like Toni Morrison’s novel Beloved, based on Margaret Garner’s story

Douglas and Popular Sovereignty

1852 Presidential Election

• Democrat Franklin Pierce defeated Whig candidate Winfield Scott

• Pierce ran on a platform recognizing the Compromise of 1850 as the final resolution of the slavery issue

• Electoral results: Pierce won 254 votes to Scott’s 42

Pierce’s Presidency

• Initially marked by sectional peace and party unity

• Ultimately considered one of the most disastrous administrations in US history

• The party system collapsed under sectional pressures in 1854

Stephen A Douglas and the Kansas-Nebraska Act

• Douglas’s Goals:

  • Provide territorial governments for Kansas and Nebraska (within the Louisiana Purchase)

  • Enable the construction of a transcontinental railroad

  • Position himself as the new Senate leader after the deaths of Calhoun, Clay, and Webster

  • Unite the Democratic Party and secure the presidential nomination for 1856

• Principle of Popular Sovereignty:

  • Proposed letting settlers in Kansas and Nebraska vote on the slavery issue

  • Aimed to balance northern and southern interests by emphasizing local self-government

• Southern Resistance:

  • Southerners opposed organizing new territories unless slavery could potentially expand, fearing a disruption of the sectional balance 

  • Popular sovereignty was seen as a compromise to gain southern support

The Kansas-Nebraska Act

Kansas-Nebraska Act (1854)

• Proposed by Senator Stephen A Douglas to create territorial governments for Kansas and Nebraska

• Repealed the Missouri Compromise, which had prohibited slavery in this region

• Allowed popular sovereignty to decide slavery’s status in the territories

Opposition to the Act

• Appeal of the Independent Democrats:

  • Written by Joshua Giddings and Salmon P Chase, it condemned the Act as:

    • A violation of the Missouri Compromise

    • Part of a southern plan to expand slavery into the West

  • Effective in rallying northern public opinion against the Act

• Many Northerners feared the Act threatened free labor and democracy in the western territories

Passage of the Act

• Douglas’s leadership secured the bill’s passage, but it caused:

  • Mass protests across the North

  • Division within the Democratic Party: Half of northern Democrats in the House voted against the bill

Political Consequences

• Democratic Party Unity Shattered

  • The South became solidly Democratic

  • Northern Democrats faced backlash from constituents

• Collapse of the Whig Party:

  • Unable to form a unified response to the crisis

• Rise of the Republican Party

  • A new political party formed from northern Whigs, anti-slavery Democrats, and others opposed to the expansion of slavery

  • Focused on preventing slavery’s expansion into new territories

Significance

• The Kansas Nebraska Act further deepened sectional divisions

• It marked a turning point, intensifying tensions that would lead to the Civil War

The Rise of the Republican Party

The Northern Economy

Political Transformation

• Cause: Disruption of slavery in traditional political parties.

• Republican Party Rise: Linked to economic and social changes.

• Completion of the market revolution.

• Mass immigration from Europe.

Economic Growth (1843-1857)

• Catalyst: Expansion of the railroad network.

  • Track mileage grew from 5,000 miles (1848) to 30,000 miles (1860).

  • Focused in Ohio, Illinois, and Old Northwest states.

• Impact:

  • Reoriented Northwest trade from the South to the East.

  • Railroads significantly reduced transportation costs.

  • By 1860:

    • 60 million bushels of wheat passed through Buffalo to eastern cities/abroad.

    • Northwest and Northeast politically and economically unified under the Republican Party.

• Integrated Economy:

  • Eastern industrialists sold goods to western commercial farmers.

  • Urban residents in the Northeast consumed food from the West.

Northern Society

• Transition from Old to New:

  • Majority lived in small towns/rural areas, valuing economic independence.

  • Majority of workers shifted away from agriculture to industry.

• Industrial Production:

  • Atlantic Coast: Boston to Baltimore.

  • Great Lakes Region: Buffalo, Cleveland, Pittsburgh, Chicago.

  • Rapid growth in coal mining, iron manufacturing, and railroad expansion.

  • Chicago: A major manufacturing hub and rail center.

    • Produced reapers, barbed wire, windmills, and prefabricated houses.

• New York City: Preeminent financial, commercial, and manufacturing center by 1860.

Southern Economy

• Focused on cotton production, bringing wealth to slaveholders.

• Did not experience the broader economic changes seen in the North.

The Rise and Fall of the Know-Nothings

Rise of Nativism

• Definition: Hostility toward immigrants, especially Catholics.

• Began as a local political movement in the 1840s.

• Expanded nationally in 1854 with the creation of the Know-Nothing Party:

  • Originated as a secret organization; members claimed, “I know nothing.”

Know-Nothing Party Goals

• Political Office: Reserved for native-born Americans.

• Opposition to Catholic Church:

  • Accused the Church of undermining public schools.

• Anti-Immigrant Sentiments:

  • Combined anti-Catholic and antislavery attitudes.

  • Opposed the sale of liquor (linked to Catholic resistance to Protestant reform movements like temperance).

Successes of the Know-Nothing Party (1854 Elections)

• Massachusetts: Elected governor, all congressmen, and nearly all state legislators.

• Won mayoral offices in cities like Philadelphia, Chicago, and San Francisco.

• Part of anti-Nebraska coalitions opposed to the Kansas-Nebraska Act.

Immigrant Discrimination and Voting Rights

• Immigrants, especially Irish Catholics, faced:

  • Discrimination in jobs, housing, and education.

  • Hostility from reform movements tied to evangelical Protestantism.

• Voting Rights:

  • Immigrants benefited from being white.

  • European immigrants gained voting rights almost immediately due to white male suffrage.

  • Non-white individuals, despite centuries of residence, were excluded from voting.

  • Regional Differences:

    • New England: Restrictions to reduce immigrant power (e.g., literacy requirements, waiting periods for naturalized citizens).

    • Western States: Allowed immigrants to vote before naturalization, seeking labor.

Broader Implications

• Immigrants displaced free blacks from jobs as servants and laborers.

• Voting was central to American notions of freedom, highlighting racial inequalities:

  • Immigrants were enfranchised upon arrival.

  • Non-whites were denied suffrage despite their ancestral ties to the country.

The Free Labor Ideology

Formation of the Republican Party:

• A coalition of antislavery Democrats, northern Whigs, Free Soilers, and Know-Nothings.

• Opposed the expansion of slavery, becoming the major alternative to the Democratic Party in the North.

Threat of the Slave Power:

• Republicans argued that the South’s proslavery political leadership, called the “Slave Power,” posed a threat to northern liberties and aspirations.

• The party shifted focus from concerns like “popery” and immigration to combating the influence of slavery.

“Free Labor” Ideology:

• Central to the Republican worldview, contrasting “free society” (North) with “slave society” (South).

• The North was portrayed as a land of progress, opportunity, and freedom.

• Economic independence, achieved through becoming a landowning farmer or independent craftsman, was essential to freedom.

• Slavery was depicted as creating a stagnant society with:

  • Degraded slaves.

  • Poor whites with no hope of advancement.

  • Idle aristocrats.

Territorial Struggle:

• A contest over whether free or slave labor would dominate the West, shaping the nation’s future.

• Republicans believed spreading slavery into the West would:

  • Bar northern free laborers.

  • Limit opportunities for social advancement.

• Insisted on keeping slavery out of the territories to allow free labor to flourish.

“Freedom National”:

• Republicans aimed not at abolition but at ending federal support for slavery.

• Emphasized the superiority of northern society under the banner of free labor.

Conflict Between Free and Slave Societies:

• Many Republican leaders, like Senator William H. Seward, viewed the division as an “irrepressible conflict.”

• Seward argued:

  • The two systems were “incompatible” within a single nation.

  • The market revolution intensified tensions by linking the nation in transportation and commerce.

  • Predicted the U.S. would ultimately become either entirely slaveholding or entirely free-labor.

Bleeding Kansas and the Election of 1856

Republican Free Labor Appeal:

• Aligned with deeply held northern values, explaining the party’s rapid rise.

• Advocated for the opposition of slavery’s expansion, resonating with northern sentiments.

“Bleeding Kansas”:

• Kansas Elections (1854–1855):

  • Proslavery Missourians crossed into Kansas to cast fraudulent ballots.

  • President Franklin Pierce legitimized the proslavery legislature.

• Free-State Response:

  • Settlers from free states created a rival government.

  • A sporadic civil war erupted, leading to ~200 deaths.

  • In May 1856, a proslavery mob attacked Lawrence (a free-soil stronghold), burning buildings and looting homes.

• Impact:

  • Discredited Senator Stephen Douglas’s policy of popular sovereignty, bolstering Republican support.

Congressional Violence:

• Preston Brooks and Charles Sumner:

  • South Carolina Representative Preston Brooks attacked antislavery Senator Charles Sumner with a gold-tipped cane.

  • Sumner had delivered a speech condemning “The Crime against Kansas.”

  • Many southerners celebrated Brooks, sending him canes engraved with “Hit him again!”

The Election of 1856:

• Republican Party:

  • Candidate: John C. Frémont.

  • Platform: Strong opposition to the expansion of slavery.

  • Remarkable performance: Carried 11 of 16 free states.

• Democratic Party:

  • Candidate: James Buchanan (not directly tied to the Kansas-Nebraska Act controversy).

  • Platform: Supported popular sovereignty as the solution to slavery issues.

  • Victory: Won the South and key northern states (Illinois, Indiana, Pennsylvania).

• Know-Nothing Party:

  • Candidate: Millard Fillmore.

  • Support:

    • Carried Maryland.

    • Attracted conservative Whig voters in the Upper South and cautious northern voters who feared Republican victory might threaten the Union.

Election Outcome:

• Buchanan won the presidency.

• Parties became reoriented along sectional lines:

  • One major party (Whigs) was destroyed.

  • Democrats were weakened.

  • Republicans emerged as a new, northern-focused party.

The Emergence of Lincoln

Introduction

James Buchanan’s Background:

• Born during George Washington’s presidency.

• Political career:

  • Served in Pennsylvania’s legislature.

  • Held positions in both houses of Congress.

  • Served as Secretary of State under President James K. Polk.

Belief in the Union:

• Buchanan was a staunch supporter of the Union.

• Aimed to calm sectional tensions during his presidency.

Failure of Leadership:

• Buchanan’s administration marked the final collapse of the party system.

• His efforts to pacify sectional divisions failed disastrously, exacerbating tensions instead.

The Dred Scott Decision

Background:

• Dred Scott’s Case:

  • Scott, an enslaved man, accompanied his owner, Dr. John Emerson, to free territories (Illinois and Wisconsin) before returning to Missouri.

  • Sued for freedom, arguing that residence on free soil made him free.

Context:

• Case offered hope of resolving the slavery controversy.

• Supreme Court announced its decision two days after Buchanan’s inauguration.

• President Buchanan encouraged Justice Robert C. Grier to join the southern majority.

Supreme Court Questions:

1. Could a Black person be a U.S. citizen and sue in federal court?

2. Did residence in a free state make Scott free?

3. Did Congress have the power to prohibit slavery in a territory?

Majority Opinion (6-3):

• Chief Justice Roger B. Taney:

  • Declared that only white persons could be U.S. citizens.

  • Claimed the Founders believed Black people “had no rights which the white man was bound to respect.”

Definition of Citizenship:

• Included freedom from legal discrimination and full constitutional rights (e.g., travel, carrying arms).

• Argued Black people, free or enslaved, were not entitled to these rights.

Rulings:

• Scott’s Status:

  • Remained a slave.

  • Illinois law had no effect after his return to Missouri.

• Congressional Power:

  • Congress lacked the power to prohibit slavery in territories.

  • Declared the Missouri Compromise unconstitutional, along with any measures limiting slavery in western territories.

Impact:

• Undermined the Republican platform of restricting slavery’s expansion.

• Weakened Douglas’s popular sovereignty doctrine (if Congress couldn’t prohibit slavery, neither could territorial legislatures).

• Southern supporters celebrated the ruling, viewing it as a comprehensive victory for slavery.

The Decision’s Aftermath

Dred Scott and Family:

• Scott’s Fate:

  • Immediately emancipated by a new master after the Supreme Court decision.

  • Died in 1858, enjoying less than two years of freedom.

• Harriet Scott:

  • Lived until 1876, witnessing the Reconstruction amendments that overturned Taney’s ruling.

• Lizzie Scott (youngest daughter):

  • Lived to age 99, dying in 1954.

  • Experienced the segregation era and the emergence of the modern civil rights movement.

Impact of the Dred Scott Decision:

• On the Supreme Court:

  • Northern opinion of the Court plummeted to its lowest point in U.S. history.

  • Decision fueled northern anger and elevated the debate over Black citizenship.

• Northern Responses:

  • James McCune Smith (Black physician and activist):

    • Dissected Taney’s reasoning, citing historical legal precedents.

    • Asserted all free persons born in the U.S., regardless of race, must be citizens.

• Republicans and Justice John McLean:

  • McLean dissented, arguing birth within the U.S. conferred citizenship regardless of race.

  • Ohio’s legislature declared every free person born in the U.S. was a citizen.

The Lecompton Constitution Battle (1858):

• Buchanan’s Pro-Slavery Stance:

  • Declared slavery existed in all territories “by virtue of the Constitution.”

  • Attempted to admit Kansas as a slave state under the Lecompton Constitution:

    • Drafted by a pro-southern convention.

    • Never submitted to a popular vote.

• Opposition:

  • Stephen Douglas (Northern Democrat):

    • Outraged by the violation of popular sovereignty.

    • Allied with congressional Republicans to block the Lecompton Constitution.

• Outcome:

  • Kansas remained a territory and later joined the Union as a free state on the eve of the Civil War.

  • Southern Democrats lost trust in Douglas, their party’s most prominent northern leader.

Lincoln and Slavery

Background of the 1858 Senate Race:

• Candidates:

  • Stephen Douglas:

    • Championed popular sovereignty.

    • Credited with preventing the administration from imposing slavery in Kansas.

• Abraham Lincoln:

  • Previously little known outside Illinois.

  • Emerged as a strong challenger to Douglas.

• Lincoln’s Early Life and Career:

  • Born in 1809 to a modest farm family in Kentucky.

  • Moved to Indiana and then Illinois during his youth.

  • Political beginnings:

    • Entered politics at age 21.

    • Served four terms in the Illinois state legislature as a Whig.

    • Served one term in Congress (1847–1849).

• Reentered politics in 1854 due to opposition to the Kansas-Nebraska Act.

Lincoln’s Views on Slavery:

• Personal Views:

  • Deeply hated slavery but was willing to compromise with the South to preserve the Union.

  • Expressed moral opposition to the fugitive slave law but maintained silence to uphold the law.

• Core Beliefs:

  • Inflexible on preventing the expansion of slavery.

  • Believed slavery was:

    • A “monstrous injustice.”

    • Hypocritical and harmful to the U.S.’s reputation as a republic.

    • A threat to the sincerity of freedom’s advocates.

Lincoln’s Free Labor Ideology:

• Personal Embodiment of Free Labor: Lincoln’s life represented the opportunities for upward mobility in northern society.

• Beliefs in Equality:

  • Advocated for every person to have the chance to improve their condition.

  • Believed Black people were not equal to whites in all respects but shared equal “natural rights” to the fruits of their labor.

  • Declared that in these rights, Black individuals were “my equal and the equal of all others.”

Lincoln’s Impact:

• Combined the moral fervor of abolitionists with a commitment to order and constitutional values.

• His speeches resonated with northern values, uniting conservatives and more progressive voices in the Republican Party.

The Lincoln-Douglas Campaign

Impact on Lincoln:

• Campaign against Stephen Douglas elevated Lincoln’s national reputation.

• June 1858: Lincoln, accepting his Senate nomination, delivered his famous “House Divided” speech:

  • “A house divided against itself cannot stand.”

  • Predicted the U.S. could not endure permanently half-slave and half-free.

  • Urged Americans to choose between opposing and favoring slavery—no middle ground.

Key Themes of the Lincoln-Douglas Debates:

• Format: Held in seven Illinois towns; attended by tens of thousands.

• Central Focus: Clashing definitions of freedom.

1. Lincoln’s View of Freedom:

• Opposed slavery; freedom required its ultimate extinction.

• Emphasized rekindling the founding fathers’ anti-slavery spirit.

• Critiqued Douglas’s popular sovereignty as moral indifference that allowed slavery’s spread.

2. Douglas’s View of Freedom:

• Defined freedom as local self-government and individual self-determination.

• Supported popular sovereignty:

  • Argued territories could discourage slavery by withholding legal protections, despite the Dred Scott decision.

• Opposed imposing moral standards on unwilling communities, declaring: “If a community wished to own slaves, it had a right to do so.”

Racial Attitudes in the Debates:

• Douglas:

  • Claimed the U.S. was created “by white men for the benefit of white men.”

  • Portrayed Lincoln as a radical whose policies would lead to racial equality, appealing to white supremacist views.

• Lincoln:

  • Shared some racial prejudices of the era:

    • Opposed Black voting rights and jury service.

    • Advocated colonization of freed Blacks overseas.

• Differed from Douglas:

  • Rejected appeals to racism in campaigning.

  • Insisted Blacks were entitled to the inalienable rights of the Declaration of Independence, applicable to “all men, in all lands, everywhere.”

Election Results:

• Illinois election reflected deep sectional divisions:

  • Southern Illinois (with Southern settlers): Voted strongly Democratic.

  • Northern Illinois (rapidly growing): Firmly Republican.

• Douglas reelected to the Senate, despite Republican victories elsewhere in the North in 1858.

John Brown at Harper’s Ferry

John Brown’s Background:

• Abolitionist with a history of antislavery activities.

• Supported fugitive slaves and financed antislavery publications.

• Deeply religious, following a vengeful Old Testament God.

Kansas Conflict:

• Participated in the Kansas civil war.

• Led the 1856 Pottawatomie Creek massacre, killing five proslavery settlers.

Harpers Ferry Raid:

• On October 16, 1859, Brown led 21 men (including 5 Black men) to seize the federal arsenal at Harpers Ferry, Virginia.

• Plan failed; Brown’s group was surrounded and defeated by federal troops led by Colonel Robert E. Lee.

Trial and Execution:

• Tried for treason to Virginia; conducted himself with dignity, gaining admiration in the North.

• Executed by order of Virginia Governor Henry A. Wise, becoming a martyr for the antislavery cause.

• Henry David Thoreau called him “a crucified hero.”

Impact and Legacy:

• Revered by radicals as someone willing to act against immorality.

• Celebrated by Black leaders for his commitment to racial justice.

• His raid widened the sectional divide between North and South.

• Final letter predicted that slavery would only end through bloodshed.

The Rise of Southern Nationalism

Growing Southern Dissatisfaction:

• Southern Democrats faced rising tensions as the North gained Republican strength.

• High slave prices limited economic mobility for many white Southerners, eroding opportunities for land and slave ownership.

• Southerners accused the North of benefiting from the cotton trade while they fell into debt, equating Union membership with “bondage” to the North.

Dream of a Slave Empire:

• Secessionists envisioned an independent South expanding into the Caribbean, Cuba, Mexico, and Central America.

• In 1854, the Ostend Manifesto advocated acquiring Cuba from Spain to expand slavery.

William Walker’s Expeditions:

• Walker, a Tennessean, attempted to establish control in Latin America, becoming president of Nicaragua in 1856 and opening it to slavery.

• Despite violating neutrality laws, Walker was celebrated in the South but ultimately forced to flee.

Strengthening Slavery:

• Southern leaders pushed for stronger pro-slavery laws, such as banning emancipation in Louisiana and reopening the African slave trade to lower slave prices.

• By 1860, southern Democrats demanded a platform protecting slavery in all territories, alienating northern Democrats and threatening party unity.

“Fire-Eaters” and Secession:

• Southern nationalists, called “fire-eaters,” sought to split the Democratic Party and form a separate Confederate nation.

The Democratic Split

Democratic Convention of 1860:

• Stephen Douglas’s supporters held a majority but lacked the two-thirds needed for the nomination.

• Douglas’s opposition to the Lecompton Constitution and his refusal to impose slavery on all territories made him unacceptable to Lower South leaders.

Platform Conflict:

• The convention adopted a platform supporting popular sovereignty, prompting delegates from seven slave states to walk out.

• After reconvening, the convention replaced the bolters with Douglas supporters and nominated him for president.

Southern Democrats’ Response:

• Southern Democrats rejected the outcome and nominated John C. Breckinridge of Kentucky, advocating for protecting slavery in the western territories.

Party Division:

• The Democratic Party, a symbol of national unity, was irreparably fractured.

• Northern and southern Democrats refused to reconcile their differences, leading to mutual distrust and ensuring disunity in the 1860 election.

The Nomination of Lincoln

Republican Convention of 1860:

• Held in Chicago, Republicans nominated Abraham Lincoln over William H. Seward.

• Lincoln had fewer delegates initially but lacked Seward’s political liabilities.

Seward’s Political Challenges:

• Former Know-Nothings resented Seward’s support for state funding to Catholic schools.

• Seward was seen as too radical due to speeches like “higher law” and “irrepressible conflict.”

Lincoln’s Appeal:

• His dedication to the Union attracted moderate Republicans.

• His moral stance on the sectional controversy appealed to abolitionists.

• His lack of association with Know-Nothings made him favorable to immigrant voters, while nativists preferred him to Seward.

• Lincoln’s Illinois background positioned him to win key “doubtful states.”

Nomination and Platform:

• Lincoln was nominated on the third ballot.

• The Republican platform:

  • Denied the Dred Scott decision’s validity.

  • Opposed slavery’s expansion.

  • Included economic policies appealing to northern voters:

    • Free homesteads in the West.

    • A protective tariff.

    • Government aid for a transcontinental railroad.

The Election of 1860

• Two Campaigns:

  • North: Lincoln vs. Douglas.

  • South: No Republican presence; Douglas, Breckinridge, and Bell competed.

• Constitutional Union Party:

  • Founded by Unionist former Whigs.

  • Platform: Preserve “the Constitution as it is” (with slavery) and “the Union as it was” (without sectional discord).

• Election Results:

  • Lincoln:

    • Carried all Northern states (except New Jersey).

    • 54% of the Northern popular vote, 40% of the national total.

    • Secured 180 electoral votes (clear majority).

• Breckinridge: Dominated most slave states.

• Bell: Won 3 Upper South states and 40% of the southern vote.

• Douglas:

  • First in Missouri and second in popular votes nationally (1.3 million).

  • Only candidate with national support across regions.

Key Takeaways:

• Sectional Divide: Voting reflected deep regional differences.

• Lincoln’s Victory:

  • No votes in 10 southern states but still elected as the 16th president.

  • Benefited from the North’s population superiority and the split in southern votes.

• Douglas’s Decline: His national appeal was insufficient to overcome sectional tensions, marking the end of traditional Union-focused political careers.

The Impending Crisis

The Secession Movement

Southern Perception of Lincoln’s Victory:

• Seen as a threat to their region’s values and interests.

• Fear of Republican dominance and growing antislavery sentiment in the North.

• Concern over potential Republican appeals to non-slaveholders in the South.

Secession as a Response:

• Lower South political leaders viewed Lincoln’s election as the start of a long Republican rule, threatening their way of life.

• Chose secession over permanent minority status under Republican governance.

Timeline of Secession:

• December 20, 1860: South Carolina seceded, citing slavery as central to the crisis.

• Seven states in the Cotton Kingdom followed (South Carolina to Texas), where slaves made up a larger share of the population.

South Carolina’s Leadership:

• First to secede.

• Highest percentage of slaves in its population.

• History of political radicalism.

Proslavery Ideology:

• Secessionists likened their movement to the American Revolution.

• George Fitzhugh argued that southern secession was more significant than 1776, as it rejected the “erroneous” ideas of human equality and natural liberty.

Key Motivation for Secession:

• Preservation of slavery and the southern way of life.

• Framed as a struggle for independence from a government hostile to their interests.

The Secession Crisis

President Buchanan’s Reaction:

• Denied the legality of secession.

• Claimed the federal government lacked authority to use force against seceding states.

Crittenden Compromise:

• Proposed by Senator John J. Crittenden of Kentucky.

• Included unamendable constitutional amendments to:

  • Guarantee slavery where it already existed.

  • Extend the Missouri Compromise line to the Pacific Ocean, dividing slavery and free soil.

• Rejected by seceding states as insufficient.

• Supported by some in the Upper South and North as a way to avoid civil war.

Lincoln’s Opposition to the Crittenden Compromise:

• Opposed the expansion of slavery, even while willing to enforce fugitive slave laws.

• Believed surrendering to secessionist demands would undermine democracy.

• Feared the compromise would lead to demands for acquiring new slave territories like Cuba or Mexico.

Formation of the Confederate States of America:

• Occurred before Lincoln’s inauguration (March 4, 1861).

• Comprised the seven seceding states.

• Adopted a constitution modeled on the U.S. Constitution, with key differences:

  • Explicitly guaranteed slavery in states and territories.

  • Allowed a single six-year presidential term.

  • Cabinet members could sit in Congress, similar to the British system.

Confederate Leadership:

• President: Jefferson Davis (Mississippi).

• Vice President: Alexander H. Stephens (Georgia).

Alexander H. Stephens on the Confederacy:

• Declared slavery and white supremacy as the “cornerstone” of the Confederacy.

Confederate Goals:

• Confident in their ability to thrive as a nation.

• Planned to pursue a pro-slavery foreign policy.

• Sought to annex new territories, especially in the Caribbean.

And the War Came

Lincoln’s Hopes and Challenges:

• Rejected the Crittenden Compromise but did not view war as inevitable.

• Believed secession might collapse from internal divisions, especially in the Upper South and among non-slaveholding farmers in the Confederacy.

• Eight slave states in the Upper South initially remained in the Union.

Lincoln’s Inaugural Address (March 4, 1861):

• Rejected the legality of secession.

• Assured the South he had no intention of interfering with slavery in existing states.

• Promised to “hold” remaining federal properties but avoided provocative actions.

• Warned that the South, not the Union, held the “momentous issue of civil war” in their hands.

Lincoln’s Early Presidency:

• Tried to avoid actions that could drive more states to secede.

• Encouraged Unionist sentiment within the South.

• Sought to avoid starting hostilities, ensuring the South would fire the first shot if war broke out.

Fort Sumter (April 12, 1861):

• Lincoln informed South Carolina’s governor of plans to resupply the fort with food.

• Jefferson Davis viewed the fort as a threat to southern nationhood and ordered an attack.

• Confederate forces bombarded the fort, leading to its surrender on April 14.

Start of the Civil War:

• On April 15, Lincoln declared an insurrection in the South and called for 75,000 troops.

• Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee, and Arkansas joined the Confederacy shortly afterward.

Lincoln’s Reflection on the War:

• Both sides wanted to avoid war, but:

  • The South would “make war rather than let the nation survive.”

  • The North would “accept war rather than let it perish.”

Henry Wadsworth Longfellow’s Warning:

• His poem “The Warning” (1842) compared American slaves to the biblical figure Samson, who destroyed the temple of his tormentors.

• Longfellow’s prediction of upheaval came true in 1861 as the Union lay in ruins.

The Civil War’s Legacy:

• The conflict to preserve the Union would lead to a “new birth of American freedom.”