Module 4: Deviance and Crime — Study Notes
Overview and Pacing
This module serves as a critical bridge in the course, connecting earlier foundational sociological concepts, such as culture, socialization, and stratification (including gender and inequality), to the more focused study of deviance and crime. It is strategically placed to prepare students for the advanced topics and comprehensive understanding required in the final weeks of the course.
The class schedule culminates on a Friday, which means there is no intervening weekend between the last week of instruction and the final submission deadlines for all assignments. Students are strongly advised to plan meticulously, dedicating sufficient time to complete and submit all required assignments, including any projects or papers, within that final week. While a tendency for late submissions is often observed, it is actively discouraged, and strict adherence to all stated due dates is paramount for successful course completion and to avoid potential penalties.
Each new week in this course introduces distinct conceptual frameworks, and this particular module marks a significant thematic shift. It transitions the analytical focus from macro-level sociological analyses of culture, socialization processes, and societal stratification (which examines social hierarchies, class, gender, and power dynamics) towards an in-depth exploration of deviance and crime. These concepts are foundational for understanding sociology as an empirical and scientific discipline, enabling a more granular examination of social order and disorder.
Core Focus: Deviance and Crime
Deviance: This term refers to any behavior, belief, or condition that violates significant social norms. Social norms are unwritten, often unstated, rules and expectations for behavior that are deeply ingrained and transmitted through the process of socialization within a particular culture, subculture, or social group. Deviant acts can range broadly from minor breaches of etiquette (e.g., talking loudly in a quiet library) to serious, legally punishable offenses (e.g., violent crime).
Crime: In contrast to the broader concept of deviance, crime is a specific subset defined as any behavior that violates formally enacted, codified laws. These are written rules established and enforced by political authorities and state institutions (e.g., government, police, courts).
Key Distinction: It is crucial to understand the intricate relationship between deviance and crime. All crime is inherently deviant because it involves violating formal laws, which are themselves a type of institutionalized social norm. However, the converse is not true: not all deviance constitutes a crime. For instance, wearing unconventional clothing to a formal event or engaging in socially awkward behavior might be considered deviant but is not illegal. Conversely, some actions may be legally defined as crimes, but their social labeling as deviant might be context-dependent or even contested within certain communities (e.g., certain acts of civil disobedience, or morally ambiguous acts where societal consensus on deviance may be split).
Sociological Challenge: The task of defining deviance presents a significant sociological challenge. This complexity is exacerbated by the rising diversity within societies, rapid cultural changes (accelerated by globalization and technology), the pervasive influence of the internet, and expanding global migration patterns. These factors frequently lead to the blurring and shifting of social norms, making universally agreed-upon definitions of deviance increasingly difficult to establish.
Social Norms vs. Social Rules (Unwritten vs. Written)
Social Norms Defined: Social norms represent the unwritten, informal rules that govern behavior, learned primarily through the lifelong process of socialization. They dictate appropriate conduct in various situations, often without explicit instruction. Examples include: where individuals typically choose to sit in a classroom (often consistently occupying the same seat), appropriate footwear for public settings, or the expected etiquette within an elevator (e.g., facing the door, personal space).
Examples Discussed:
Wearing two different shoes in public or class: This serves as a highly visible norm violation. Such an act is likely to attract immediate attention, generate comments, or even evoke humor, demonstrating a clear breach of unspoken dress codes.
Eating without utensils at a fine dining restaurant: This deviates significantly from established etiquette in formal dining settings, often leading to social discomfort or judgment.
Consistent seating in a classroom: Many individuals develop a habit of sitting in the same seat. Occupying someone else’s usual spot, even if unintentionally, can draw their attention or mild social sanction, highlighting the informal territoriality governed by norms.
Enforcement of Social Norms: Social norms function as informal expectations and are not codified into law. Their enforcement primarily relies on social reactions and informal sanctions—ranging from disapproving glances, whispers, or explicit comments to mild embarrassment. The presence or absence of such social reactions is a key determinant in whether an act is perceived and labeled as deviant.
Real-world example from the speaker: The instructor shared a personal anecdote of arriving somewhere wearing two different shoes. The immediate awareness of the norm violation (and the potential social embarrassment) prompted a quick change of shoes. This vividly illustrates how the anticipation of a social reaction, or the reaction itself, plays a crucial role in defining an act as deviant and motivating conformity.
Additional examples: Fashion choices like unusual hair colors, prominent piercings, or highly unique attire can be considered deviant in certain contexts (e.g., a conservative corporate workplace or a religious gathering) but perfectly acceptable, or even celebrated, in others (e.g., a music festival or a fashion show). This underscores the situational and audience-dependent nature of deviance.
Deviation and Crime: Definitions and Interactions
"Deviance" vs. "Crime" Revisited:
Deviance: Primarily concerns the violation of unwritten rules—social norms. The labeling of an act as deviant is heavily influenced by societal reactions to that act, making it context-dependent and subject to interpretation.
Crime: Involves the violation of written laws. For an act to be legally classified as a crime, it typically requires both the objective consummation of a prohibited act (the actus reus) and, in most cases, a culpable mental state or intent (the mens rea).
Relationship Reaffirmed: Crime is almost universally a form of deviance, as violating formal laws also violates unwritten societal expectations of law-abiding behavior. However, a vast array of deviant acts do not reach the threshold of illegality and are therefore not considered crimes.
Illustrative Points:
Divergence in Labeling: Certain acts, while legally criminal, might not be labeled as deviant in all social contexts or by all groups. For example, some acts of survival (like stealing food when starving) or actions taken under extreme duress might be understood or excused by society, even if technically illegal.
Extreme Cases: Consider situations like self-defense killings. Legally, a homicide has occurred, but if the criteria for self-defense are met, the act might not be socially deemed deviant or morally wrong by many, and legally, it may not lead to conviction. This highlights a potential divergence between legal and social labeling.
Act and Intent (Mens Rea & Actus Reus): The presence or absence of intent is critical in determining the legal classification and severity of a crime. For instance, the distinction between manslaughter (homicide without premeditation or malice aforethought, often due to recklessness or in the heat of passion) and murder (premeditated or malicious homicide) hinges entirely on the perpetrator's intent and mental state. An act occurring entirely without intent (e.g., a truly accidental death where no negligence is found) may not even be classified as a crime, or it could lead to lesser charges like accidental homicide or misadventure, depending on state law.
Visual Depiction: Conceptually, one can imagine a Venn diagram where the circle representing "Crime" is fully contained within the larger circle representing "Deviance." However, a significant portion of the "Deviance" circle exists outside the "Crime" circle, illustrating that most deviant behaviors are not criminal.
Theoretical Lenses on Deviance (Macro vs. Micro Perspectives)
Sociologists employ different theoretical perspectives—macro (large-scale societal focus) and micro (individual or small-group interaction focus)—to understand the multifaceted nature of deviance:
Conflict Theory (Macro Perspective):
Focus: This theory centers on issues of power, inequality, and social conflict. It argues that deviance and crime are not inherent qualities of an act but rather labels imposed by those in power to maintain and reproduce existing social hierarchies and power structures. Deviant labels are often applied to marginalized groups.
Key Questions: Conflict theorists ask: Who possesses the power to define what constitutes deviance and, conversely, what is considered normal or acceptable behavior? How do these definitions serve the interests of the powerful? How does the media, often controlled by powerful interests, shape our perception of deviance, and who ultimately benefits from these particular portrayals?
Examples: Media coverage often sensationalizes crimes committed by individuals from lower socioeconomic backgrounds while downplaying or overlooking white-collar crimes or corporate malfeasance. Uneven reporting around certain types of crime (e.g., drug offenses vs. investment fraud) can reflect and reinforce existing power dynamics and class biases.
Functionalism (Macro Perspective):
Focus: Functionalism views society as a complex system whose parts work together to promote solidarity and stability. From this perspective, deviance, while seemingly negative, can actually serve several important functions for society, ultimately contributing to social cohesion and facilitating social change.
How Deviance is Functional: It asks how deviance, paradoxically, clarifies moral boundaries and norms (by demonstrating what happens when they are violated), promotes social unity (by bringing people together to condemn deviants), and prompts collective responses that ultimately help to maintain or, in some cases, modify social order. For example, persistent deviance can spotlight societal problems, leading to social reforms.
Symbolic Interactionism (Micro Perspective):
Focus: This theory examines how the meaning of deviant acts, and indeed the deviant identity itself, emerges through social interaction and the process of labeling. It emphasizes that deviance is not an objective quality of an act but a product of how others react to it.
Central Idea (Howard Becker): A cornerstone of this perspective is Howard Becker's profound insight: "Deviance is not the quality of the act the person commits, but rather a consequence of the application by others of rules and sanctions to an 'offender.' The deviant is one to whom that label has successfully been applied; deviant behavior is behavior that people so label." This means an act becomes deviant because society reacts to it as such, not because of some inherent property of the act itself.
Emphasis: This perspective highlights the crucial roles of context, audience, and social labeling. It explains why the same behavior can be considered deviant in one culture or situation but normal or even celebrated in another, revealing the variability and constructed nature of deviance.
Becker’s Deviance Framework and Illustrative Examples
Key Idea: Howard Becker's framework fundamentally posits that the societal reaction to an act is more determinative of whether something is labeled deviant than the intrinsic nature of the act itself. This underscores the subjective and socially constructed nature of deviance.
Examples Illustrating Reactions:
Unreported Deviance: If a person commits a minor norm violation (such as the earlier example of wearing two different shoes), but it goes unnoticed or elicits no significant social reaction, the deviance is minimized or not perceived at all. The absence of a reaction effectively prevents the labeling process.
Extreme Body Modifications: Practices like extensive piercings or large tattoos vary widely in how they are perceived. In some contexts, such as a conservative church or a traditional school environment, they might be highly stigmatized and viewed as deviant. However, in other contexts, like a tattoo convention, a rock concert, or certain artistic communities, they are not only accepted but may even be celebrated as expressions of identity or art.
Context Matters Critically: The same act can be overtly deviant and lead to negative sanctions in one setting, yet be considered entirely normal, or even expected, in another. This variability is contingent upon the specific audience present, the prevailing social norms of that setting, and the power dynamics at play. For instance, speaking loudly in a library is deviant, but speaking loudly at a football game is normal.
Application: The framework can be applied to diverse social settings. In housing (e.g., neighborhood cleanliness standards), education (e.g., student dress codes, academic honesty), and workplaces (e.g., professional attire, communication styles), specific norms operate, and their violation shapes whether an act is formally or informally labeled deviant.
Implication: As broader societal norms evolve and shift over time (e.g., changing attitudes toward LGBTQ+ visibility, evolving gender roles, or the acceptance of new technologies), the labeling of what constitutes deviance also changes. Behaviors once condemned may become accepted, and vice-versa.
Social Control: Mechanisms That Enforce Norms and Laws
Social control refers to the methods and strategies used by society to encourage conformity to norms and laws, thereby discouraging deviance and maintaining social order. It is crucial for the stable functioning of any organized group or society.
Forms of Social Control:
Informal Social Control: These are everyday, non-codified mechanisms through which social norms are enforced. They rely on interpersonal reactions and are learned through socialization within families, peer groups, and communities. Examples include: disapproving gestures, gossip, ridicule, ostracization, compliments, social approval, and peer feedback. The embarrassment experienced from wearing mismatched shoes is an example of an informal sanction.
Formal Social Control: These are established, systematized mechanisms backed by the authority of the state or official institutions. They involve written rules (laws) and specialized agencies to enforce them. Examples include: laws enforced by police, courts, and correctional institutions (prisons). Formal sanctions often include fines, imprisonment, probation, and other legal penalties.
Examples from the Lecture:
Wearing two different shoes: This specific act often elicits informal social sanctions (e.g., curious stares, comments, or personal embarrassment) but typically does not lead to legal consequences or formal penalties from the state.
Workplace Rule Violations: Breaking a company policy or workplace rule (e.g., being consistently late, misusing company property) can lead to informal consequences (e.g., verbal warnings, reduced responsibilities, pay penalties, corrective action plans) without necessarily incurring legal penalties, illustrating the spectrum of informal enforcement in organizational settings.
The Role of Conformity:
Inherent to Social Life: Sociology emphasizes that conformity is an inherent and pervasive aspect of social life. Due to the influence of culture and the processes of socialization, individuals are constantly conforming to a myriad of norms, expectations, and roles to some extent.
Beyond "Followers vs. Leaders": The simplistic dichotomy of "followers vs. leaders" is often seen as less central in sociological analysis. Instead, leadership roles are frequently defined by skills, expertise, or specific situations (e.g., an individual with strong Excel skills naturally takes a lead role in a group project requiring data analysis), rather than solely by charisma or a fixed social position.
Internal vs. External Controls:
Internal Controls: These are self-imposed mechanisms that guide behavior, often stemming from an individual's internalized moral compass, conscience, values, and sense of guilt or shame. These controls are largely shaped by psychological development and early socialization.
External Controls: These are pressures exerted by external forces to ensure conformity. They can be formal (e.g., the legal system, rules enforced by authorities) or informal (e.g., social norms, peer pressure, community expectations).
The Spectrum of Conformity: While some individuals might seek to live "off the grid" or pursue alternative lifestyles, even they often engage intermittently with broader societal systems for resources, goods, or services, demonstrating that complete non-conformity is rare and often unsustainable. All humans, to some degree, conform to the cultural frameworks and socialization processes necessary for survival and interaction.
Connections to Prior Modules and Broader Relevance
This module on deviance and crime fundamentally builds upon and integrates concepts introduced in earlier modules:
Culture and Socialization: It extends earlier discussions of culture and socialization by illustrating how social norms—the very fabric of culture—operate in daily life and how their violation is interpreted and responded to. It highlights how individuals internalize these norms through socialization.
Stratification and Gender: The module deepens debates around stratification and gender by exploring how social hierarchies, power imbalances, socioeconomic status, and gender roles influence who gets labeled as deviant or criminal, who is subjected to social control, and the differential treatment often experienced by various groups within the criminal justice system.
Real-World Relevance: It highlights the profound real-world relevance of understanding how deviance and crime are defined, how they are policed (both formally and informally), and how they are socially constructed within increasingly diverse, globalized, and digitally connected contexts. This encourages a critical examination of societal institutions.
Assignments and Expectations (This Week’s Tasks)
Students have several key assignments due this week:
Writing Assignment Prompt: This assignment requires students to engage critically with a provided article about higher education and deviance, specifically focusing on a college admissions scandal that involved wealthy families (e.g., the case involving Lori Loughlin, whose last name was redacted in the original transcript).
Paragraph 1: Provide a concise summary of the article in your own words, capturing its main arguments and key events.
Paragraph 2: Explain the intricate connection between higher education and deviance as elaborately discussed within the article. This should delve into how academic institutions, or the pursuit of entry into them, can become sites for deviant behavior.
Paragraph 3: Discuss the "front door" (merit-based admissions) versus "back door" (privilege-based or illicit admissions, such as donations or fraud) admission policies. Analyze how these disparities may perpetuate and reinforce stereotypes about wealth, privilege, and access in society.
Theoretical Application: Select one of the primary sociological theories on deviance (functionalism, conflict theory, symbolic interactionism, or related criminology theories such as strain theory or social control theory). Apply this chosen theory to the situation described in the article, explaining what the theory would illuminate about the scandal.
Power, Wealth, and Deviance: Include a discussion on how power and wealth significantly shape the definition and prosecution of deviance and crime. Provide a concrete example of a famous person involved in a deviant or criminal activity. Detail what happened in their case and analyze whether they were punished or treated differently compared to an average person lacking similar social capital.
Referencing: If any external sources are consulted or quoted, a properly formatted reference page must be included.
Live Session Post Prompt: This post requires students to identify and analyze an example of online deviance.
Example: Provide a specific, detailed example of online deviance (e.g., catfishing, cyberbullying, online scams, identity theft, online fraud, spreading misinformation).
Reaction’s Role: Explain in detail how audience reactions (or the notable lack thereof) within the digital community or broader society significantly shape whether that online act is ultimately labeled and perceived as deviant.
Due Dates and Grading:
Discussion posts are typically due by the end of Saturday.
All other assignments are due by the end of Sunday.
Grading Timeline: The instructor aims to grade submissions promptly, usually the day after the due date, whenever feasible. Students should be aware that late submissions may be explicitly marked as such, potentially impacting their grade.
Feedback and Questions: Students are strongly encouraged to communicate any questions, concerns, or requests for clarification via email. Active feedback from students is highly valued and plays an important role in the continuous improvement of course materials and instructional effectiveness.
Practical Implications and Ethical Considerations
Influence of Power, Wealth, and Privilege: These factors exert a profound influence on what behaviors are socially defined as deviant or legally classified as criminal. Furthermore, they critically impact how individuals are processed and treated by legal and social systems, often leading to disparities in outcomes based on socioeconomic status.
Media Representation: The way media portrays crime and deviance plays a significant role in shaping public perception, attitudes, and fear. Unequal access to media channels (who gets to tell the story) can reinforce existing social inequalities and influence public discourse on justice.
Labeling and Stigmatization: The process of being labeled as deviant or criminal can have long-lasting, pervasive consequences that extend far beyond any legal outcomes. Stigmatization can profoundly affect an individual's social mobility, educational opportunities, employment prospects, and overall life chances, creating significant barriers to reintegration and success.
Evolution of Norms: The ongoing processes of globalization and increased digital connectivity are constantly reshaping and evolving social norms. This dynamic environment necessitates continuous sociological analysis to understand how new forms of deviance emerge, how older forms are reinterpreted, and how social control mechanisms adapt.
Quick Reference: Key Definitions and Relationships (LaTeX-formatted for study)
For enhanced clarity and precise understanding, the core definitions and their relationships are presented using LaTeX notation:
Deviance ($D$): This can be formally defined as the set of all acts ($a$) belonging to the universe of all possible human actions ($A$) such that these acts violate established normative expectations ($N$).
\mathbf{D} = { a \in A \mid a \text{ violates normative expectations } N }Crime ($C$): This is defined as the set of all acts ($a$) belonging to the universe of all possible human actions ($A$) such that these acts violate formally enacted laws ($L$).
\mathbf{C} = { a \in A \mid a \text{ violates formal law } L }Relationship between Crime and Deviance: This fundamental relationship states that every crime is a form of deviance (Crime is a subset of Deviance), but not all deviance constitutes a crime (Deviance is not necessarily a subset of Crime). This is represented mathematically as:
\mathbf{C} \subseteq \mathbf{D} \quad \text{but} \quad \mathbf{D} \nsubseteq \mathbf{C} \quad \text{in general}
This illustrates that deviant acts can occur without being criminal, while criminal acts are, by their nature, deviant.Intent and Act in Crime: Criminality often necessitates the combination of a prohibited act (the actus reus) and a culpable mental state or intent (the mens rea). If $A$ represents the act and $I$ represents intent, then a crime commonly involves both $A$ and $I$ being present simultaneously. The absence of intent can lead to reclassification, such as manslaughter instead of murder, or even exoneration in cases of pure accident.
\text{Crime commonly involves } A \land IBecker’s Perspective: This core idea from symbolic interactionism emphasizes that deviance is not an inherent characteristic of an act itself, but rather a social construct arising from the societal reaction to that act.
\text{Deviance is about the reaction to the act, not the act itself}
Quick Reminders for Exam Prep
To effectively prepare for examinations, students should focus on the following key areas:
Distinguish Key Concepts: Clearly understand and be able to articulate the fundamental difference between unwritten social norms (which define deviance) and formally written laws (which define crime). Provide examples for each.
Theoretical Approaches: Comprehend the major macro-level sociological approaches to deviance (Functionalism and Conflict Theory) and the micro-level approach (Symbolic Interactionism). Be able to explain their core tenets, their differing questions, and how they analyze deviant behavior.
Influence of Power and Media: Be prepared to discuss in detail how power structures, concentrations of wealth, and the role of various media outlets influence both the labeling of behaviors as deviant or criminal and the differential treatment (punishment) of individuals or groups in society.
Apply Becker’s Idea: Be ready to apply Howard Becker’s central idea—that deviance is determined by the reaction to an act, not the act itself—to new or hypothetical examples. Additionally, be able to analyze contemporary examples of online deviance specifically in terms of audience reaction, digital community norms, and the labeling process.
The Tone and Expectations Moving Forward
Instructor's Emphasis: The instructor consistently emphasizes the importance of sustained engagement, punctual submission of all assignments, and the application of the scientific method to rigorously study sociological phenomena. This approach encourages empirical analysis and evidence-based reasoning.
Continued Discussion: Students can anticipate ongoing in-depth discussions about how deviance and crime operate within our increasingly diverse and interconnected global society. A strong emphasis will continue to be placed on empiricism (relying on observable evidence), critical thinking about social structures, and the real-world relevance of sociological insights.
Quick Examples to Memorize for Class Discussion
Having concrete examples readily available will enhance class discussions and problem-solving:
Everyday Norm Deviation: A classic example is wearing two different shoe colors or styles. This highlights how an act's labeling as deviant is highly contingent upon the social reaction it elicits (e.g., stares, comments, or a lack thereof).
Contextual Considerations: Be aware of the nuanced line between actions stemming from a disability, behaviors necessitating disability-friendly accommodations, or acts driven by survival (e.g., stealing food to prevent starvation). Such acts may technically be illegal but are often socially understandable or evoke empathy, illustrating how moral and legal judgments can diverge.
Online Deviance Examples: Specific instances of online deviance, such as catfishing (deceptive online identity), cyberbullying (harassment in digital spaces), or various online scams (fraudulent schemes), serve as excellent illustrations. These examples effectively demonstrate how audience reactions within digital communities and the interpretation of evolving internet norms are crucial for determining whether an online act is labeled deviant.
Optional Connected Themes to Study Prior Weeks
To deepen the understanding of deviance and crime, students are encouraged to revisit and connect this module's content with themes from previous weeks:
Culture and Cultural Change: Review how culture defines shared values and beliefs, and how cultural change can lead to shifts in what is considered normative or deviant.
Socialization Processes: Re-examine how individuals internalize societal norms through socialization and how breaks in these processes can contribute to deviant behavior.
Stratification and Gender Perspectives: Consider how social stratification (class, race, ethnicity) and gender influence who is disproportionately involved in, or affected by, deviance and crime, and how these factors shape their experiences within the justice system.
Role of Institutions: Reflect on how various social institutions (e.g., family, education, media, government, religion) play a critical role in both enforcing norms and laws, as well as in defining and responding to deviance within society.
Final Note
To excel in this module and beyond, students are strongly advised to remain engaged with the assigned readings, actively participate in discussions, and prepare a meticulously well-argued, theory-based response for the writing assignment. This response should effectively draw upon the three main sociological theories of deviance and integrate relevant real-world examples. Always maintain a critical perspective, carefully considering the profound and pervasive roles of power, wealth, and broader social context when evaluating and analyzing both deviance and crime in contemporary society.