UGS303: Jerusalem

Late Roman / Byzantine Period

Terms

  • Constantine – Roman emperor who legalized Christianity and transformed Jerusalem into a Christian pilgrimage center.

  • Julian – “Julian the Apostate,” Roman emperor who tried to reverse Christianization and restore paganism.

  • Eudocia – Byzantine empress who expanded Jerusalem, restored walls, and supported Christian institutions.

  • Nea Church – Massive basilica built by Justinian in the 6th century.

  • Madaba Map – Oldest surviving map of the Holy Land (mosaic), emphasizing Christian Jerusalem.

  • Heraclius – Byzantine emperor who briefly reclaimed Jerusalem from Persians in 630 CE.

  • Khosrau II – Persian emperor who captured Jerusalem in 614 CE and destroyed churches.

Discussion Answers

Impact of Helena (Constantine’s mother) on Jerusalem

She identified holy sites, sponsored the building of the Church of the Holy Sepulcher, and promoted pilgrimage.

Key architectural features of the 4th-century Church of the Holy Sepulcher

A rotunda over Jesus’ tomb, a basilica, a courtyard, and elaborate shrines marking key Christian sites.

Early Islam in Jerusalem

Terms

  • Umar – Second caliph; peacefully entered Jerusalem and guaranteed protection for Christians/Jews.

  • Madinat Bayt al-Maqdis – Early Islamic name for Jerusalem (“City of the Holy House”).

  • al-Quds – Later Arabic name meaning “The Holy.”

  • Muʿawiya I – First Umayyad caliph; used Jerusalem politically and was crowned there.

  • Masjid al-Aqsa – The mosque on the southern end of the Haram; holy to Muslims.

  • Haram al-Sharif – The “Noble Sanctuary,” Islamic name for the Temple Mount.

  • Caliph Abd al-Malik – Umayyad caliph who built the Dome of the Rock.

Discussion Answers

Impact of early Islam on Jerusalem & treatment of other religious groups

Muslims made Jerusalem a holy city, built major shrines, but allowed Christians/Jews to stay, worship, and manage their institutions under protected-minority status.

Significant features of the Dome of the Rock

Octagonal shape, gold dome, Qur’anic inscriptions, interior mosaics, and the sacred rock at the center.

Abbasid, Fatimid, Seljuk Era

Terms

  • al-Abbas – Founder of the Abbasid dynasty.

  • Abu Moslem – Key revolutionary who helped bring Abbasids to power.

  • Haroun al-Rashid – Abbasid caliph known for diplomacy and supporting Christian interests in Jerusalem.

  • Fada’il al-Quds – “Virtues of Jerusalem” literature praising the city’s holiness in Islam.

  • Abd al-Ma’mun – Abbasid caliph involved in Jerusalem’s administration.

  • al-Hakim – Fatimid ruler infamous for destroying the Holy Sepulcher (later rebuilt).

  • Fatimids – Shi’a dynasty that ruled Jerusalem and alternated between tolerance and conflict.

  • Seljuks – Turkic Sunnis who briefly controlled Jerusalem before the Crusades.

Crusader Period

Terms

  • Pope Urban II – Called the First Crusade in 1095.

  • Godfrey of Bouillon – First ruler of Crusader Jerusalem (not called “king”).

  • St. Anne’s Church – Crusader church known for its acoustics; near the Pools of Bethesda.

  • Templum Domini – Crusader name for the Dome of the Rock, used as a church.

  • al-Sulami – Muslim thinker who wrote early calls for jihad against Crusaders.

  • Saladin – Muslim leader who recaptured Jerusalem in 1187.

  • Horns of Hattin – Battle where Saladin defeated the Crusaders.

  • Balian of Ibelin – Negotiated surrender of Jerusalem to Saladin.

  • Ayyubids – Dynasty founded by Saladin.

Discussion Answers

Four factors that led to the Crusades

  1. Religious motivation/pilgrimage rights

  2. Appeal from Byzantium for help

  3. European social/military pressures

  4. Desire for land, wealth, and indulgences

Why Saladin challenged Crusader power

Crusader attacks on Muslim pilgrims, his goal of unifying Muslim lands, and the need to stop Frankish expansion.

Later Crusades / Ayyubids / Mamluks

Terms

  • Nachmanides – Jewish scholar who revitalized Jewish life in Jerusalem (13th century).

  • Richard I the Lionheart – Led the Third Crusade; negotiated peace but didn’t retake Jerusalem.

  • Treaty of Jaffa – Allowed Christian pilgrimage while Jerusalem remained under Muslim control.

  • al-Kamil – Ayyubid ruler who negotiated with Crusaders and ceded Jerusalem temporarily.

  • Treaty of Jaffa and Tell Ajul – 1229 treaty returning Jerusalem to the Crusaders.

  • Mamluks – Military rulers who later controlled Jerusalem and restored Islamic dominance.

Ottoman Period (15th–18th c.)

Terms

  • Suleiman I – Ottoman sultan who rebuilt Jerusalem’s walls.

  • Charles V – Holy Roman Emperor and political rival of Suleiman.

Discussion Answers

Impact of Suleiman I on Jerusalem

Rebuilt walls, revitalized the city, improved water systems, and supported religious pluralism.

How Suleiman renovated the Dome of the Rock

Replaced mosaics, repaired structural damage, added tiles, and beautified the exterior.

18th Century Jerusalem

Terms

  • Napoleon’s Letter to the Jews – Declaration promising Jewish restoration (never implemented).

  • Judah he-Hasid – Led Jewish immigration movement; his followers built the Hurva Synagogue.

  • Ḥurva Synagogue – Major Ashkenazi synagogue destroyed then rebuilt.

  • Naqib al-Ashraf Revolt – Local revolt against Ottoman authority.

  • Palm Sunday Rebellion of 1757 – Christian sectarian violence over holy site control.

Discussion Answer

What led to increased European interest in Jerusalem (18th c.)

Christian rivalries, missionary expansion, pilgrimage growth, and weakening Ottoman control.

19th Century Jerusalem

Terms

  • Holy Sepulcher Fire of 1808 – Destroyed much of the church; rebuilding drew European intervention.

  • Mehmet Ali – Egyptian ruler whose reforms opened Palestine to foreigners.

  • American Colony – U.S. Christian commune aiding locals.

  • Moses Montefiore – British Jewish philanthropist who built Jewish neighborhoods.

  • Russian Compound – Russian pilgrimage center showing Russian influence.

  • Samuel Clemens – Mark Twain; his writings increased Western fascination with the Holy Land.

Discussion Answer

19th-century European interest in Jerusalem

Biblical archaeology, missionary activity, imperial rivalry, Ottoman reforms, and easier travel.

Zionism, Ottoman Collapse, and WWI

Terms

  • Dreyfus Affair – French antisemitism case that pushed Herzl toward Zionism.

  • Theodor Herzl – Founder of modern political Zionism.

  • David Lloyd George – British PM who supported Balfour Declaration.

  • Second Aliyah – Wave of Jewish immigration (1904–1914).

  • Filastin – Early Palestinian Arabic newspaper promoting nationalism.

  • Kaiser Wilhelm – German emperor who visited Jerusalem in 1898.

  • David Ben Gurion – Future first prime minister of Israel.

WWI – British Mandate Period

Terms

  • Sykes-Picot Agreement – Secret division of the Middle East by Britain and France.

  • Balfour Declaration – British support for a Jewish homeland.

  • Chaim Weizmann – Zionist leader; later first Israeli president.

  • Sherif Hussein – Led Arab Revolt in WWI.

  • Edmund Allenby – British general who captured Jerusalem (1917).

  • Haj Amin al-Husseini – Grand Mufti of Jerusalem and key Palestinian nationalist.

  • Herbert Samuel – First British High Commissioner.

Partition Plans & Revolts (1930s–40s)

Terms

  • Arab Revolt of 1936 – Palestinian uprising against British rule and Jewish immigration.

  • Peel Commission – First formal partition plan (1937).

  • King David Hotel Bombing – Irgun attack on British HQ (1946).

  • UNSCOP Proposal – 1947 UN partition plan.

Discussion Answer

Compare partition proposals (1930s–40s)

  • Peel (1937): Small Jewish state + larger Arab state + British Jerusalem.

  • UNSCOP (1947): Two states with economic union; Jerusalem under international control.

  • 1930s White Papers: Limited Jewish immigration, moved away from Zionist support.

1948 War & Aftermath

Terms

  • Deir Yassin massacre – Attack by Jewish militias that intensified Arab flight.

  • Mount Scopus convoy massacre – Attack on Jewish medical convoy.

  • Yitzhak Rabin – Israeli commander in 1948; later prime minister.

  • Burma Road – Supply route to Jerusalem during the siege.

  • Operation Nachshon – First major Israeli offensive to open road to Jerusalem.

  • King Abdullah – Jordanian ruler who annexed East Jerusalem.

Discussion Answers

Boundaries of Jerusalem after 1949

City was divided: Israel controlled West Jerusalem; Jordan controlled East Jerusalem and the Old City.

This complicates present-day negotiations due to overlapping religious/national claims.

What happened to Jerusalem after the 1948 war

Division, population transfers, armistice lines, and restricted access to holy sites.

Pan-Arab Era & 1967

Terms

  • Fedayeen – Palestinian guerrilla fighters.

  • Abdul Nasser – Egyptian president; champion of Pan-Arabism.

  • Palestinian National Charter (1964) – Defined Palestinian national goals.

  • Pan-Arabism – Idea of uniting all Arab states politically.

  • 1967 War – Six-Day War; Israel captured East Jerusalem.

  • Moshe Dayan – Israeli defense minister in 1967.

  • UN Resolution 242 – Called for territorial compromise after 1967.

  • Yerushalayim shel Zahav – Israeli song celebrating united Jerusalem.

  • Zahrat al-Mada’en – Popular Arab song mourning the loss of Jerusalem.

Discussion Answers

Arab national policy (1940s–1960s)

Opposed Zionism, promoted Arab unity, controlled Palestinian political activity, and viewed Palestine through pan-Arab rather than independent Palestinian lens.

Causes of the Six-Day War (en-Naksah)

Border clashes, Nasser’s blockade of the Straits of Tiran, Soviet misinformation, Arab mobilization, and Israeli preemptive strike.

Late 20th Century Conflicts

Terms

  • 1968 Palestinian National Charter – Revised goals after 1967 defeat.

  • Yom Kippur War – 1973 Arab surprise attack on Israel.

  • Henry Kissinger – U.S. Secretary of State leading diplomacy.

  • Anwar Sadat – Egyptian president who made peace with Israel.

  • Camp David Accords – 1978 Egypt–Israel peace framework.

  • First Intifada – 1987 mass Palestinian uprising.

Discussion Answer

Factors leading to the First Intifada

Israeli occupation hardships, economic inequality, settlement expansion, and growing Palestinian nationalism.

21st Century Conflict & Diplomacy

Terms

  • Yasser Arafat – PLO leader.

  • 1993 Oslo Accords – Created Palestinian Authority; mutual recognition.

  • Hamas Covenant – Islamist charter opposing Israel.

  • Ariel Sharon – Israeli PM; his 2000 visit to Haram al-Sharif triggered unrest.

  • Second (al-Aqsa) Intifada – Violent uprising (2000–2005).

  • 2003 Roadmap – U.S.-led peace plan.

Discussion Answer

(Repeated topic) Factors leading to the First Intifada

See above: long-term discontent, occupation, nationalism, and a triggering incident in Gaza (traffic accident + protests).