psych practice
☺ PSYCH (123)
o People
§ Carl rogers
· Humanism; client-focused therapy
· Clients can grow; accept client fully without judgement and with respect
§ Julian rotter
· Locus of control (external = attributed things that happens to them to external stimuli; internal = attributes things that happens to them to internal stimuli)
§ Ivan pavlov
· Classical conditioning and behaviorism
§ Alfred adler
· Individual psychology; birth order, superiority and inferiority
§ Robert Sternberg
· Theory of intelligence; more than IQ score; analytic intelligence, creative and practical intelligence (3)
§ Howard gardner
· (8) visual-spatial, verbal-linguistic, bodily-kinesthetic, naturalistic, logical-mathematical, musical, interpersonal, intrapersonal intelligence
§ Louis Thurstone
· (7) Primary mental abilities; verbal comprehension, perceptual speed, numerical ability, reasoning, word fluency, associative memory, spatial visualization
§ Charles spearman
· G-factor = common factor in people who scored well on IQ exams
§ Emile Durkheim
· Division of labor to increase social system’s productivity and efficiency
· Safety valve in society; deviance is allowed to “let off steam” in some circumstances
· Decline of traditional groups = decline of moral values
· Suicide rates (increases due to social change)
· Functionalism: components of society making a whole
§ Erving Goffman
· Dramaturgy; front stage and backstage self
§ Karl marx
· Opium of the people; dialectic processes
· Capitalism would be overpowered by communism
· Conflict theory = economic conflict between different social classes
§ Max weber
· Bureaucracies = structure of modern society = iron cage
· Rationalization = justification
§ Auguste Comte
· Founding father of sociology
§ Jean Baudrillard
· Postmodern theorist; hyperreality
§ Frank Notestein
· Stages of population growth (i.e. high birth rate and high death rate, low birth and death rate = stable population and little growth)
§ Thomas Malthus
· Demographic change; populations grow exponentially more than food supplied. This will lead to catastrophe
§ George Ritzer
· McDonaldization = businesses become more efficient but mass produced
o Drugs
§ Psychological masquerade
· When a psychological disorder is caused by a physical (organic) problem
§ Biological fallacy
· False belief that all things can be explained by biological factors
o Responses
§ Conditioned
· Associationism
o associate response to conditioned stimulus
· classical conditioning is a learning model! NOT a word for a stimulus
§ reinforcements
· primary = always evokes a positive response
· secondary/conditional = needs another stimulus present to evoke a positive response
§ confirmation bias
· general finding context that backs up prior beliefs
· halo effect
o form of confirmation bias that revolves around forming positive feelings to a person (i.e. attractiveness), influences how you may perceive them in other traits (i.e. intelligent)
o think: cooperativity of an enzyme
o social
§ reflected appraisal
· self-esteem is attributed to people’s opinions of you
§ learned helplessness
· beyond someone’s control so you just give up/in
· Martin Seligman
§ Foot in the door technique
· For persuasion
· Begin with asking person to do something small and then they will be more likely to do the next thing that is larger
§ Identification
· Developing an identity and integrating traits from people around you
§ Denial
· Defense mechanism to settle cognitive dissonance (i.e. when you have an internal conflict and seek out ways to combat it or ease it)
§ Attention deficit
· Always think ADHD. Not comparable to focused attention (i.e. focused attention on one thing) divided attention (i.e. focused on two things simultaneously) or selective attention (i.e. being able to tune out other stimuli and focus on one thing)
§ Role conflict
· Between multiple roles (i.e. job and taking care of children)
· James O’Neill
§ Role strain
· Stress to meet expectations of one role; causes stress
o Ex. Impostor syndrome
§ OCEAN
· Acronym for the Big Five personality traits (i.e. openness to experience, conscientiousness, extroversion, agreeableness, neuroticism)
§ Social movements
· Recruit from the middle class, nonpolitical, focus on materialistic things and are centered on a single issue or limited range of issues
o theories
§ cognitive theory
· the way humans think
§ behaviorism
· no conscious control; conditioning and operant conditioning
§ psychodynamic theory
· uncovering unconscious thought/false memories
§ humanistic theory
· triangle = self-actualization; focus on positive and person’s well being and becoming better
§ social control theory
· social control mechanisms need to be in place for regulation of members
§ social learning theory
· learned through modeling
§ labeling theory
· defining things as normal and when something is done against the norm, it is considered deviant
§ systems theory
· looking at things from the micro (in self), meso (family, neighborhoods) and macro (government) levels
§ social desirability
· NOT A THEORY
· Changing facts to be favorable with public opinion
§ Attribution theory
· Causal explanations to events
o Ex. justifying a crime
§ Feminist theory
· Patriarchy dominates women
· Some races are more likely to be victimized by the patriarchy
· Egalitarian gender roles mean they are EQUAL! (not part of this theory)
§ Conflict theory
· Certain groups will experience different levels of resources depending on their access to the resources
§ Social interactionist/symbolic interactionism
· Ex. meeting for coffee is not about the drink, but the social interaction
§ Marxist perspective
· the effect of something on workers and the economy
§ assimilation theory
· immigrants adopt cultural norms of the host country
§ ecological theory
· behavior is influenced by their environment
· the _ systems: microsystem, mesosystem, macrosystem, chronosystem (i.e. dimension of time = when someone was born)
§ diffusion of innovations theory
· not willing to change
§ gender role conflict
· people have different roles depending on their gender and can be conflicting
§ behavior theory
· people’s thoughts and beliefs did not influence behavior
· rewards and punishments
§ trait theory
· self-report of things that characterize you; personality
§ Milton Bennett’s Developmental Model of Intercultural Sensitivity
· Ethnocentric = all one culture; DDM (denial, defense, minimization)
o People are people; lack of cultural differences/awareness
· Ethnorelative = ARI (acceptance, adaptation, integration)
§ Jean Piaget’s theory of developmental psychology
·
o Statistics
§ Nominal variable
· Categories without a specific order
§ Correlations
· Association tests from variables with a specific order/numbers to draw correlations from the results
· Cannot be a nominal variable (since not measured in the study)
§ Want the groups studied to be “matched” to limit confounding variables
§ P value always trumps CI!!
· Even if CI overlap, if p values are less that 0.05, it is significant!
o Meaning = rejecting null hypothesis (null = no correlation)
§ When drawing conclusions, make sure to include the context, neural area (or whatever studied), statistical test, and direction of relationship (i.e. + or -)
§ Correlations tests
· Test the relationship between two variables
§ ANOVA
· Determining the p-value (null hypothesis tests)
§ Means and standard deviation
· Not for hypothesis testing but for patterns in data
§ Kolmogorov-Smirnov
· Normally distribution curves
§ Likert scale
· 1-5 (5 always, 1 never)
· Social desirability bias
o Always choosing 5 for positive and 1 for negative for things that would make someone fit into a perfect standard in society
o Memory
§ Nondeclarative
· Procedural memory
§ Declarative
· Semantic (facts) and episodic (memories about you)
« Psych/soc
o Perspectives
§ Neobehaviorist/behaviorist
· Same thing! Believe behavior modified by rewards and punishments
· Believe most effective way is through positive reinforcement
§ Jean Piaget’s theory of development
· Sensorimotor stage (0-2) = marked by the end of object permanence
· Concrete operational stage (7-11) = marked by understanding conservation (i.e. that a dime is worth more than 5 pennies)
· Preoperational stage (2-7) = unable to take another perspective, but focus on themselves
o Lack theory of mind: put yourself in someone elses shoes (i.e. empathy)
§ Psychoanalytic theory
· Intellectualization = defense mechanism using intellectual aspects of the problem
· Denial = defense mechanism behaving as if the problem does not exist
· Displacement = defense mechanism where person takes out frustration on others
· Repression = defense mechanism when you try to push the problem to your subconscious
§ Erik Erikson’s model of psychosocial crises
· Resolve crisis of stagnation vs. generativity (i.e. transcend own mortality = given from previous generation)
· identity = sense of self and values; crisis of an adolescent
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· TAIIIIGI: Therapists Always Identify Inner Issues In Growth Interviews (8)
§ Kohlberg’s stages of moral development
·
· P(OS) C(IL) P(SU) = Piece Of Sh**, CIL, PSU!!
§ Behavorism (Skinner)
· Classical conditioning = getting sick from the food eaten at a restaurant and then feeling ill when you pass by it
o NOT operant conditioning since no goal of behavior modification
o Memory
§ Depth of processing = analysis of information; transferred from STM to LTM through analysis; if have a motivator to enhance memory, would need to be done BEFORE analysis to enhance memory of the analyzed item
§ Dual-store model = moved from STM to LTM when maintained and rehearsed
o Experiments
§ Solomon Asch’s conformity experiment
· Likelihood of conformity in a group setting
§ Stanley Milgram’s shock experiment
· Obedience and power of authority
§ The robbers cave experiment
· Rivalry and discrimination of in-group/out-group biases
§ The Tuskegee syphilis experiment
· Unethical medical experiment with race bias of experimenters to participants
o Genetics
§ Huntington’s Disease = autosomal dominant mutation (no environment)
§ Schizophrenia, Parkinson’s, depression = some genetic, but some environment too
o Egocentrisism = focus only on yourself
o Freud’s perspectives
§ Id = impulses
§ Ego = controls our impulses and causes us to not act on them (think: our ego is too big to do wrong so we preserve our ego)
o Feelings
§ Ennui = lethargy and apathy/depression (i.e. purple guy in the new inside out movie)
o Social effects
§ Ostrich effect = avoiding a risky financial situation by pretending it doesn’t exist
§ Unreliable witness effect = in court cases, an eyewitness may be unreliable
§ Altruism = putting the benefit of the group over yourself
§ Social isolation = distancing yourself from social life
§ inclusive fitness = improving genetic success by helping others with similar genes survive
§ social learning = learn new behaviors through imitation
§ social loafing = when in group, perform worse
§ social facilitation = performing better in the presence of others
§ social interference = reduction in performance in the presence of others
§ learned helplessness = after failure (multiple failures) discourage further effort even though circumstances change
§ self-serving bias = success is from an internal factor, but failure is due to external factors
§ prejudice = negative attitudes to a GROUP; thoughts, attitudes, and feelings someone has about a race group not based on actual experience
§ stereotyping = oversimplified ideas about groups of people based on their race
§ discrimination = an ACTION toward a racial group
§ integrative reminiscence = older people come to terms with previously unresolved conflicts
§ normative social influence = changes behavior to avoid rejection
§ socialization = humans learn the norms of their society
§ informational social influence = change behavior to do the right thing
§ Hawthorne Effect = changing behavior because are being watched/observed
§ Functionalism = interdependence among institutions in society
§ Attribution theory = blaming behavior on a personality characteristic (when is a mental disorder); explains why people interpret the actions of others the way they do
§ Social capital = using social network to acquire a job (for example)
§ Social mobility = ability to move up or down in a social system (i.e. getting an education, earning money, etc.)
§ Social reciprocity = respond to a kind action with another kind action
§ Social stratification = how people are categorized in a society (race, education, wealth, income, etc.)
§ Assimilation = when new members of a society adapt to the dominant culture by modifying own culture
o harlow monkey experiment
§ Harry and Margaret Harlow; social isolation experiments on monkeys and found: isolation causes long-term and irreversible negative impacts, baby monkeys prefer a cloth mother vs. nutrient mother (comfort bond, not for food), securely attached monkeys are better adjusted than insecurely attached monkeys
o Statistics
§ Reliability = over time consistency
§ Just because the coefficient is high, does not imply causation
§ Causality = done by random assignment
§ Generalization = need to have a mix of people (not just one race/gender)
§ Standard deviation = in normally distribution, 99.6% of all cases fall within 3 SD of the mean. So, if mean is 15.1 and SD was 1.6, (15.1 – 4.8 = 10.3) (15.1 + 4.8 = 19.9) 4.8 is from 1.6 x 3 (the SD for 99.6% of people).
§ Need to calculate outliers; if 2 SD away from the mean, is within 95%, so is not considered an outlier
§ Studies need to be double blind!
o Vision
§ Severed corpus callosum = hemispheres not exchanging information
§ Objects on R visual field sent to L hemisphere (think eye ball) and since can verbalize with the L hemisphere, only verbalize information sent to L hemisphere (which is on the R visual field)
o Soc terms
§ Paternalism = people with high status have more right to make decisions than other people
· Think: DEI claims this and says is put in place to correct it
§ Self interest = give more attention to people who give you money (ex.)
§ Meritocracy = advancement or reward given to the most talented or accomplished member of a group (i.e. “merit”)
§ Impression management = how people control information they present themselves to influence how they are perceived
§ Peer pressure = social influence by others who are equals
§ Fundamental attribution error = judge person based on personality
§ Groupthink = desire for conformity and avoid expression alternative viewpoints or ideas
§ Identity shift = individual experiences shift in their identity to eliminate internal conflict due to conforming to the norms of a group that are outside their normal character
§ Identification = accepts ideas of others even if they don’t believe them
§ Internalization = changing a behavior to fit with the group while privately agreeing with the ideas of the group
§ Inductive reasoning = drawing conclusion from specific to general
· Think: bottom up processing
§ Disconfirmation principle = accept evidence supporting already formed beliefs and rejecting evidence refuting it
§ Social interactionist = desire to communicate and interact (innate); language learned through interaction with others
§ Nativist = innate ability to learn language through theoretical pathway in the brain
§ Behaviorist = child shows preference for phonemes in language spoken by parents
§ Whorfian hypothesis = linguistic relativity hypothesis; the way we think about the world is determined by the content of language
§ Personal legitimization = making things legal at a personal level
§ Latent function = neither recognized nor intended; unintended consequence of an action or social structure
§ Social identity = how self identity relates to actions; a persons self concept is determined from membership in a social group
§ Moral entrepreneurship = deliberate shift for the norm for economic or political reasons
§ Role-taking/behavior acquisition = more likely to model behaviors from someone more like them (i.e. same race or gender)
· Children model behaviors of anyone (not just parents)
§ Echopraxia = mirroring the actions of someone else in schizophrenia
· Not correlated to a increased risk for schizophrenia
o Neurotransmitters
§ Serotonin = affects sleep (regulates sleep/wake cycle), mood, appetite
· Think: people with depression have low serotonin and issues with these things
§ Heroin = opiate with effects of euphoria and decreased pain
§ Alcohol = depressant; disinhibition and alcohol myopia (i.e. short sighted worldview)
· PFC inhibited
§ Benzodiazepines = sedatives to increase GABA and relaxation (similar to alcohol)
§ Amphetamines = stimulant to increase release and decrease reuptake of neurotransmitters like dopamine and serotonin (think: similar to coke); delusions of grandeur
o Psych perspectives
§ Social cognitive perspective = concerned with effects of actions on others; expectations of others
§ Cognitive therapy = helps people recognize problems are based on faulty and unhelpful ways of thinking and patterns of unhelpful behavior (i.e. negative experiences not your fault)
§ Token economy = form of rewards (behavioral therapist)
§ Psychodynamic approach = catharsis (i.e. allow expression of negative experiences in a safe environment)
§ Psychoanalytical = uncover unconscious roots
§ Psychopathy in personality disorders
· Would fall under the cluster B disorders (i.e. behavior patterns dramatic, emotional, erratic)
· Cluster A = behavior patterns odd, eccentric (i.e. magical thinking, suspicion, indifference to others)
· Cluster C = anxious or fearful patterns of behavior
· AO, BD, CA
o Brain regions
§ Prefrontal cortex = processing negative emotions
§ Anterior cingulate cortex = higher order cognition; impulse control and decision-making
o Scans
§ MRI = alzheimers
§ EEG = epilepsy
§ Myelogram = spinal cord issues (i.e. tumors, lesions, herniated discs)
§ Polysomnogram = sleep disorders
o Sleep
§ Activation synthesis theory = attributes dreams to random neuronal activation
§ Problem solving dream theory = solving problems during sleep
§ Cognitive process dream theory = dreams come from the stream of consciousness being continuous during arousal and sleep
§ Neurocognitive model of dreaming = biological and psychological perspectives of dreaming with a physiological change