Exam 2 study guide

How does a hormone affect cells?

It connects to the cell hormone receptors 

 What are cell receptors? 

protein molecules on the surface or inside a cell that act as specific binding sites for signaling molecules (ligands)

What controls most hormone concentrations?

The hypothalamus and the pituitary gland 

What is the effect of a steroid hormone binding to a receptor in a target cell?

Is alters the expression of the cell 

What is meant by the terms upregulated and downregulated cell?

Upregulated relates to a cell that has increase its activity or production fo specific molecule (like protein or RNA) in response to stimulus 

A downregulated cell refers to one that has decreases activity or production of a molecule due to a signal 

What are the actions and mechanisms of growth hormone?

Binding on to target cells to stimulate a response, influence height, help build bone and muscle. 

 ADH? 

The actions are regulation water balance, blood pressure, and blood vessel contrsiction

Triiodothyronine? 

Regulates the body's metabolic rate meaning it controls how quickly the body uses energy from food 

Parathyroid hormone?

Regulate blood calcium levels by stimulating the release of calcium from bones, promoting calcium reabsorption in the kidneys, and indirectly facilitating calcium absorption in the intestines through the activation of vitamin D in the kidneys

Adrenocorticotropic hormone? 

Stimulating the adrenal cortex to release cortisol 

Melatonin?

Helps regulate sleep-wake cycles and circadian rhythms

What hormones are released by the Anterior pituitary gland? 

• Growth hormone 

• Prolactin 

• Thyroid-stimulating hormone 

• Adrenocorticotropic hormone

• Follicle-stimulating hormone 

• Luteinizing hormone 

Posterior pituitary gland? 

• Oxytocin

• Antidiuretic hormone 

Where are the target cells for hypothalamic-releasing hormones located?

Anterior pituitary gland 

What is diabetes insipidus?

Rare hormonal disorder that causes excessive thirst and urination 

What are the actions of cortisol?

A stress horomse that regulates obdy response to stress

• Increase 

  • Plasma protein 

  • Catabolisim 

  • Muscle breakdown 

  • Free faty acid 

  • Blood glucose 

  • SNS response 

• Supresses 

  • The immune and infoammatory system 

What are the actions of insulin? 

Decrease glucose levels in blood 

Glucagon

Increase glusoe levels in blood 

What is the cause of Type 1 diabetes mellitus?

Genetic and environmental facts

An autoimmune reaction 

What is the cause of Type 2 diabetes mellitus?

A combination of genetics and environmental factos including beign overweight and not excersicing 

It is also causes by insulin resistance 

What are some effects of Diabetes mellitus?

• Weight loss

• Excessive thirst or urination 

• Weight loss

• Blurred vision 

• Dry skin

• Numbness or tingling in the hands or feet

• Fatigue 

Describe an RBC.

Responsible for caring oxygen from the lungs to the rest of the body 

How are RBCs levels regulated? 

By the hormone erythropoiten 

What are the effects of Hypoxemia?

Underlying issue with breathing or blood flow 

• Shortness of breath

• Rapid breathing 

• Fast heart rate

• Coughing or wheezing

• Confusion 

• Bluish skin color 

• Headache

What is a hematocrit? 

a blood test that measures the percentage of red blood cells in your blood

What is a normal hematocrit?

for adult males is typically between 41% and 50%, while for adult females it is between 36% and 44%

How long do RBCs live? 

120 days 

How are RBCs broken down?

By macrophages in the spleen and liver 

What is the normal pH of blood?

7.35 to 7.45

What is the structure of hemoglobin?

Four protein subunits, arranged in tetrahedral structure, with each subunit containing a polypeptide chain and heme group which binds oxygen 

What is the underlying cause of sickle cell disease?

A mutation in the HBB gene 

What type of antigens are found with type O, A, B, and AB blood?

A antigens are in a blood

B antigens are in b blood 

A and b antigens are found in AB blood 

No antigens are found in O blood 

Which is true about an individual who is Rh-negative?

The blood lacks the Rh antigen 

Describe a blood platelet.

A tiny, disc-shaped piece of cell that is found in the blood and spleen

Tiny colorless cell fragments in the blood that help stop bleeding 

What are Petechiae?

small , pinpoint red or purple spots that appear on the skin due to bleeding under the skin 

Know the steps in the formation of a blood clot.

• Vasoconstriction: The injured blood vessel narrows to reduce blood loss. 

• Platelet plug formation: Platelets stick together to form a temporary plug that stops bleeding. 

• Coagulation cascade: Clotting factors in the blood activate to stabilize the plug. 

• Fibrin plug formation: Fibrin strands form a net that traps more platelets and blood cells, creating a stable clot.

Know the steps in the breakdown of a blood clot.

• The body senses that an injury has healed

• The body releases an activator that turns on plasmin, a protein that's already in the clot

• Plasmin breaks down the clot's mesh-like structure

Name two substances that function to dissolve blood clots.

• Tissue plasminogen activator and heparin

What is Prothrombin time used to evaluate?

Blood clotting 

What is a Pulmonary embolism?

a condition where a blood clot (embolus) travels to the lungs and blocks one or more pulmonary arteries.

Know the Frank-Starling law on the heart?

states that the greate the ED volume of the blood flling the heart chambers (preload) before contraction, the stronger the subsequent contraction and the larger the stroke volume of blood pumped out

Know the formula for Cardiac output.

Hr x SV 

What is the primary function of the cardiovascular system?

transport oxygen and nutrients to all parts of the body

What is the function of the systemic circuit?

provides the functional blood supply to all body tissue

Know the structure of the heart.

Know the name and location of the valves, when they are open, and their relationship to the heart sounds.

Tricuspid: between right ventricle and atrium (related to the sound of systole when closing) 

Pulmonary: between right ventricle and pulmonary trunk (related to the sound of dystole when closing) 

Mitral valve: between the left ventricle and atrium (related to the sound of systole when closing) 

Aortic valve: located between left ventricle and aorta (related to the sound of dystole when closing) 

Know the best positioning of a stethoscope to hear the mitral or aortic valves.

position the stethoscope at the fifth intercostal space, midclavicular line on the left side of the chest,

Be able to describe the flow of blood from the vena cava through the heart, lungs, and systemic circulation – back to the vena cava.

Comes through the vena cava to the right atrium then through the right av valve goes to the right ventricle then goes to through the pulmonary valve into the pulmonary trunk then to the pulmonary arteries to the lungs then through the pulmonary veins which leads to the left atrium then to the left ventricle through the left av valve (mitral valve) then to the left ventricle then to the aorta then to the rest of the body back to the vena cava 

What chambers of the heart will contain oxygen-poor blood?

Right atrium and ventricle 

Name the layers of the wall of the heart and pericardium.

Endocardium, myocardium, and epicardium