Language Development and Acquisition
The Fundamentals of Language
Linguistic Competence: The mastery of formal characteristics of language.
Phonology: The study of the sound system of a language.
Morphemes: The smallest units of meaning in a language.
Syntax (Syntactics): The rules that govern how words and phrases are combined to form grammatically correct sentences.
Example: The sentence "Colorless green ideas sleep furiously" is syntactically correct, but semantically meaningless, demonstrating the distinction between the two characteristics.
Semantics: The study of meaning in language.
Language Production and Comprehension
Language involves two distinct processes: production (speaking, writing) and comprehension (understanding speech, reading).
Broca's Aphasia: A language disorder primarily affecting language production, often resulting in halting, ungrammatical speech.
Wernicke's Aphasia: A language disorder primarily affecting language comprehension, leading to fluent but often meaningless speech.
Early Language Development
Early Sounds and Communication
Prelinguistic Communication: Communication through non-linguistic means such as sounds, facial expressions, gestures, and imitation.
Babbling: The production of speech-like but meaningless sounds.
Typically begins around 2-3 months of age and continues for about a year.
It is a universal phenomenon among infants.
Infants exposed to sign language will babble with their hands.
Babbling progresses from simple sounds to more complex ones.
It serves as an early form of communication for infants.
First Words
Timing: Infants typically utter their first words between 10-14 months of age.
Holophrases: One-word utterances that convey the meaning of a whole phrase, with their specific meaning dependent on the context in which they are used.
Cultural Variation in First Words:
A comparison across North America, Hong Kong, and Beijing revealed common terms like "mommy" and "daddy" across all cultures.
English-speaking infants initially showed knowledge of a few people-related and animal-related terms, and tended to use more nouns first.
Non-English speakers (in this study's context, potentially Mandarin Chinese speakers) used more people-related terms and no animal-related terms initially, and tended to use more verbs first.
By 20 months, many similarities in the types of frequently spoken words emerged across these cultures.
First Sentences
An increase in vocabulary around 18 months of age typically leads to infants linking words together to form simple sentences.
Telegraphic Speech: Early sentences that omit non-essential words (e.g., articles, prepositions) but retain the core meaning (e.g., "Daddy go car").
These early sentences provide labels for objects and describe relationships between them.
Perspectives on the Origin of Language
Learning Theory Approach
Core Idea: Language acquisition is explained by the basic principles of reinforcement and conditioning.
Child language becomes more similar to adult speech through a process of shaping, where closer approximations to adult speech are reinforced.
Criticism: This approach is often criticized for not adequately explaining how children acquire complex linguistic rules so readily and quickly, suggesting more than just environmental conditioning is at play.
Nativist Approach (Universal Grammar)
Core Idea: Language comprehension and production are directed by a genetically determined, innate mechanism.
Championed by Noam Chomsky, who proposed:
Universal Grammar: An innate linguistic knowledge or set of principles shared by all humans, forming the basis for all human languages.
Language-Acquisition Device (LAD): A hypothetical module in the brain responsible for processing and acquiring language, pre-programmed with universal grammar rules.
Support: Evidence includes the identification of specific genes (e.g., FOXP2, though not explicitly named in the transcript, it's the commonly referenced gene in this context) related to speech production, and the rapid acquisition of complex grammar by children.
Questions/Criticisms: Some aspects are questioned in relation to the limited language learning abilities of primates and the significant role of social experience in human language development.
The Interactionist Perspective
Core Idea: Language development arises from a combination of genetically determined predispositions and environmental circumstances.
This perspective views language as emerging from the interplay between innate abilities and social and environmental input.
Perspectives on Language and Thought
Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis (Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis)
Core Idea: Language influences thought.
Strong Version (Linguistic Determinism): Language determines thought, directly constraining cognitive processes. If a language lacks a word or grammatical structure for a concept, it is harder, if not impossible, for speakers of that language to think about that concept.
Weak Version (Linguistic Relativity): Language shapes but does not necessarily determine thought. Different languages emphasize different aspects of the world, leading their speakers to attend to and conceptualize things differently (e.g., color perception, spatial reasoning).
Example: How different languages categorize colors. Sapir-Whorf would argue that these linguistic differences cause people to conceptualize color differently based on their language.
The Universalist Perspective
Core Idea: Thought shapes language; thought exists independently of language.
This perspective posits that basic human cognitive processes like perception, reasoning, and memory are universal across cultures and languages.
Language merely expresses pre-existing thoughts rather than shaping them.
Fodor's Language of Thought Hypothesis: Proposes the existence of "mentalese" – a hypothetical, internal language of thought that serves as the true medium of cognitive processes. Spoken language is considered merely a tool for external communication of these internal thoughts.
Integrated Perspective (Madeline's Perspective)
A tentative perspective suggests a dynamic, interactive relationship where culture, thought, and language influence each other in a complex, interconnected manner. This relationship can be viewed as cyclical or triangular (Culture $\leftrightarrow$ Thought $\leftrightarrow$ Language).
Talking to Children
Infant/Child Directed Speech
Definition: A distinctive type of speech directed toward infants, characterized by short, simple sentences, higher pitch, exaggerated intonation, and slower tempo.
Role in Language Acquisition: Plays a crucial role in infants' acquisition of language by capturing their attention, highlighting word boundaries, and simplifying linguistic input.
Factors Influencing Language Development
Attention Skills: The ability to focus on relevant linguistic input.
Temperament: A child's inherent personality traits can influence their interaction with language learning environments.
Amount of Linguistic Input: The quantity and quality of language exposure a child receives.
Siblings: Interaction with siblings can provide additional linguistic input and social contexts for language use.
Daycare: Participation in daycare can expose children to diverse language models and social interactions.
Screen Time and Types of Screen Use: The amount and nature of exposure to screens can impact language development, depending on content and interaction.
Parental Sensitivity: Parents' responsiveness and interaction style with children can foster language growth.
Preschool Age Language Development
Vocabulary and Sentence Structure
Sentence length increases steadily throughout the preschool years.
Preschoolers acquire new words at an impressive rate, roughly one new word every two hours.
By age 6, the average child possesses an expressive vocabulary of approximately 14,000 words.
Fast Mapping: The process by which children quickly associate a new word with its meaning after only one or two exposures, without extensive instruction.
Grammar Acquisition
Preschoolers begin to acquire the fundamental principles of grammar, which are the rules governing the structure of a language system.
Descriptive Grammar: Describes how language is actually used by speakers.
Prescriptive Grammar: Proscribes how language should be used, according to established rules.
Example: "Are you where from coming?" (descriptively used by a language learner, but prescriptively incorrect) vs. "Where are you coming from?" (prescriptively correct).
Private Speech
Definition: Spoken language not intended for others; children talking to themselves.
According to Vygotsky: Private speech is crucial for facilitating children's thinking, helping them control their behavior, and solving problems by verbalizing their thoughts.
According to Piaget: Private speech is largely egocentric, reflecting a child's inability to consider another person's perspective.
Socioeconomic Status and Language
Poverty and Language Development
Reduced Language Input: Less time spent together as a family (often due to economic pressures) can lead to less language input for children.
Limited Resources: Reduced access to books and other educational materials.
Word Gap: Children living in poverty are often exposed to significantly fewer words compared to their more affluent peers, leading to a "word gap" and fewer opportunities to learn vocabulary.
Language in Middle Childhood
Metalinguistic Awareness
Definition: The understanding of one's own language use and the ability to think about language as an abstract system, rather than just as a tool for communication.
Children with enhanced metalinguistic awareness are more likely to ask for clarification or more information when they don't understand something, demonstrating an analytical approach to language.
Bilingualism
Types of Bilingualism
Simultaneous Bilingualism: Learning two languages from birth.
Children are exposed to and develop proficiency in both languages concurrently.
Initially, children may mix words or grammatical structures from both languages, which is a natural phase of development.
Sequential Bilingualism: Learning a second language after the first language is already established.
An initial lag in the second language is common, but learners often catch up and achieve proficiency over time.
Cognitive Advantages of Bilingualism
Enhanced Inhibitory Control: The ability to suppress irrelevant information or responses, often seen in code-switching and managing two language systems.
Enhanced Metalinguistic Awareness: Greater ability to understand and consciously reflect on the structure and properties of language.
Delayed Cognitive Decline: Some research suggests that lifelong bilingualism may offer a protective effect against age-related cognitive decline.
Cultural Awareness: Greater understanding and appreciation of different cultures.
Challenges in Bilingual Development
Language Mixing: Young children may mix words from both languages within the same sentence, which is a normal developmental phase and not indicative of confusion.
Dominance of One Language: One language may become dominant, leading to uneven development or proficiency in the less frequently used language.
Educational Challenges: Bilingual children may face specific challenges in educational settings, particularly if their first language differs from the language of instruction.
Social Pressures: Children may experience social pressure to prioritize one language over the other, especially in monolingual dominant environments.
Encouraging Bilingualism
Parental Usage: Parents should consistently model language use and actively encourage both languages at home to strengthen proficiency.
Consistent Exposure: Provide children with frequent and meaningful exposure to both languages across various contexts, such as home, school, and social environments.
Encouraging Code-Switching: Normalize and encourage code-switching (alternating between two or more languages in conversation) as a natural and adaptive part of bilingual communication.
Bilingual Education Programs: Enrolling children in programs where both languages are valued and reinforced can significantly support bilingual development.
Adult Language Learning
Why is Language Learning Harder for Adults?
Critical Period Hypothesis: Suggests that language acquisition is significantly easier and more successful during childhood, with adults facing cognitive and neurological constraints that make true native-like proficiency more challenging.
Less Time for Immersion: Adults often have less dedicated time for full immersion in a new language environment compared to children.
Pronunciation Difficulty: Adults who were not exposed to the phonological input of a second language during infancy may find it harder to distinguish and produce certain sounds accurately, resulting in a foreign accent.
Strategies for Adult Language Learning
Prioritize Speaking and Listening: Focus on active communication rather than solely on grammar rules.
Practice with Native Speakers: Engage with native speakers for conversation practice and be explicit about the type of feedback or practice desired.
Move Beyond Basic Vocabulary: Once foundational vocabulary is learned, focus on expanding to more advanced and context-specific terms.
Immersion: Seek opportunities for immersive experiences where the target language is spoken predominantly.
Varied Resources: Utilize tools like Duolingo, but do not rely on a single resource; incorporate a variety of learning methods and materials. This helps in developing a more comprehensive understanding and practical application of the language.