Learning

Classical Conditioning

Key Terms

• Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): A stimulus that naturally produces a response without learning (e.g. food).

• Unconditioned Response (UCR): The automatic, natural response to a UCS (e.g. salivation to food).

• Neutral Stimulus (NS): A stimulus that initially produces no relevant response.

• Conditioned Stimulus (CS): A previously neutral stimulus that, after being paired with a UCS, triggers a learned response.

• Conditioned Response (CR): The learned response to a CS.

Classical Conditioning
A type of learning where a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a stimulus that naturally produces a response. The neutral stimulus eventually triggers the response on its own.

Stages

• Before conditioning: UCS → UCR; NS → no response

• During conditioning: NS + UCS → UCR

• After conditioning: CS → CR

Example

• Validation (UCS) → feeling good (UCR)

• Notification sound (NS) + validation (UCS) → feeling good (UCR)

• Notification sound becomes CS → feeling good (CR)

Habit Loop
Cue → craving → response → reward

Types of Classical Conditioning

• Simultaneous conditioning: CS and UCS occur at the same time.

• Short-delayed conditioning: CS begins shortly before UCS and both end together; generally produces stronger conditioning.

Processes of Classical Conditioning

• Acquisition: Learning the CS–CR association.

• Extinction: CR weakens/disappears when CS is repeatedly presented without UCS.

• Spontaneous Recovery: Extinguished CR reappears after a delay.

• Stimulus Generalisation: Similar stimuli trigger the CR.

• Stimulus Discrimination: Ability to distinguish the original CS from similar stimuli.

• Renewal Effect: Extinguished CR returns when the individual returns to the original learning environment.

Interstimulus Interval (ISI)
The time between presentation of the CS and UCS. Conditioning is usually strongest when the CS occurs shortly before the UCS (forward conditioning).

Factors Affecting Conditioning

• Stronger UCRs usually produce faster and longer-lasting conditioning.

• Prior conditioning makes relearning easier.

• Blocking: An existing CS–CR association prevents learning of a new CS.

• Latent Inhibition: Familiar neutral stimuli take longer to become conditioned.

Habituation and Sensitisation

• Habituation: Reduced response after repeated exposure to a harmless stimulus.

• Sensitisation: Increased responsiveness after repeated exposure, especially to threatening stimuli.

• Hypervigilance is common in anxiety disorders such as PTSD, phobias, OCD, and social anxiety.

Emotional Conditioning

Little Albert

• White rat = NS

• Loud gong = UCS

• Crying to gong = UCR

• After repeated pairings, rat becomes CS

• Crying to rat = CR

Demonstrated that emotional responses such as fear can be classically conditioned.

Phobias

• Can develop through classical conditioning.

• People often become hypervigilant to the feared stimulus.

• Other anxiety disorders may also involve learned associations.

Exposure Therapy (most effective treatment)

• In vivo: Real-life exposure.

• Imaginal: Imagining feared stimulus.

• VR: Virtual reality exposure.

• Interoceptive: Exposure to feared bodily sensations.

Methods

• Graded Exposure: Gradually increasing exposure using a fear hierarchy and SUDS ratings.

• Flooding: Immediate exposure to the most feared stimulus.

• Systematic Desensitisation: Graded exposure combined with relaxation techniques.

Taste Aversion (Garcia Effect)

• Can develop after a single CS–UCS pairing.

• CS (food) and UCS (illness/chemotherapy) may be separated by several hours.

• Helps organisms avoid foods that previously caused illness.

Operant Conditioning & Social-Cognitive Learning

Classical vs Operant Conditioning

• Classical conditioning: Learning through associations between stimuli. An environmental stimulus comes before and triggers a response. Passive learning.

• Operant conditioning: Learning through consequences. A behaviour occurs first and is followed by reinforcement or punishment, affecting the likelihood of future behaviour. Active learning.

Operant Conditioning

Law of Effect

• Behaviours followed by satisfying consequences are strengthened.

• Behaviours followed by unsatisfying consequences are weakened.

Reinforcement vs Punishment

• Reinforcement: Increases a behaviour.

• Punishment: Decreases a behaviour.

Acquisition

• Initial learning of a behaviour.

• Behaviour becomes stronger each time it is reinforced.

Shaping

• Reinforcing successive approximations of a desired behaviour.

• Used when the target behaviour is complex or not yet present.

Limitations of Punishment

• Does not eliminate unwanted behaviour, only suppresses it.

• Behaviour may return when punishment stops.

• Can produce unwanted side effects (fear, resentment, aggression).

• Does not teach the desired behaviour.

Reinforcement Schedules

Continuous Reinforcement

• Reinforcement every time the behaviour occurs.

• Best for learning new behaviours.

• More susceptible to extinction.

Partial Reinforcement

• Reinforcement occurs only sometimes.

• Slower learning but greater resistance to extinction.

Remember:

• Ratio = number of behaviours/responses.

• Interval = amount of time.

• Variable schedules are more resistant to extinction than fixed schedules.

Shaping and Chaining

Shaping

• Learning through reinforcement of progressively closer behaviours toward the target behaviour.

Chaining

• Combining already learned behaviours into a sequence.

Types of Chaining

• Forward chaining: Learn first step → last step.

• Backward chaining: Learn last step first and work backwards.

Applications of Operant Conditioning

Behaviour Modification

• Systematic use of learning principles to change behaviour.

Token Economy

• Desired behaviours are rewarded with tokens.

• Tokens can be exchanged for rewards or privileges.

Social-Cognitive Learning

Core Idea

• Learning is influenced not only by consequences but also by thoughts, beliefs, expectations, and observations of others.

Includes:

• Latent learning

• Expectancies

• Locus of control

• Learned helplessness

• Observational learning

• Vicarious learning

Perceived Control

• Expectations about whether behaviour will influence outcomes.

• Greater perceived control generally increases motivation.

Learned Helplessness

• Belief that one cannot control or escape negative events.

• Leads to reduced motivation, poorer learning, and increased risk of depression.

Explanatory Style

• How people explain successes and failures.

• Influences vulnerability to learned helplessness and depression.

Observational Learning (Bandura)

Learning by watching others (models).

Four requirements:

1. Attention – notice the behaviour.

2. Retention – remember the behaviour.

3. Reproduction – be capable of performing it.

4. Motivation/Reinforcement – have a reason to perform it.

Vicarious Learning

• Learning from observing the consequences experienced by others.

Exam Summary

• Classical conditioning = learning through associations between stimuli.

• Operant conditioning = learning through consequences of behaviour.

• Observational learning = learning through watching and modelling others.

• Reinforcement increases behaviour; punishment decreases behaviour.

• Variable ratio schedules are the most resistant to extinction.

• Learned helplessness develops when people believe they have no control over outcomes.