Exam 3 Notes

Module 39: Stress and Illness

• Stress: Process of perceiving and responding to stressors perceived as threatening or challenging.
  • Stress as appraisal of events:
  • Threat = stressed
  • Challenge = aroused/focused

Categories of Stressors

1. Catastrophes:

   • Unpredictable, large-scale events (natural disasters, wars, pandemics).
   • Causes significant emotional and physical health damage.
   • Can lead to relocation stress syndrome.

2. Significant Life Changes:

   • Major events like death, divorce, job loss.
   • Often occur during young adulthood.
   • More life changes → higher illness risk.

3. Daily Hassles:

   • Everyday irritants (traffic, arguments, workload).
   • Cumulative effect contributes significantly to stress and health risks.

Stress Response Systems

• Walter Cannon: Defined "fight-or-flight" response.
• Hans Selye's General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS):
  1. Alarm: Mobilize resources (sympathetic NS activates).
  2. Resistance: Cope with stressor (cortisol released).
  3. Exhaustion: Bodily reserves depleted; illness/death possible.

Immune System and Stress

• Impact of Stress on Immune System:
  • Overreaction: Can lead to autoimmune diseases (e.g., MS, lupus).
  • Underreaction: Susceptibility to infections or cancer.
• Psychoneuroimmunology: Studies the interaction between mind, body, and stress.

Stress and Disease

• Wound Healing: Slower with stress.
• Increased Vulnerability: Higher susceptibility to colds, HIV progression, heart disease.
• Inflammation: Chronic stress increases inflammation, contributing to various health issues.

Heart Disease and Stress

• Coronary Heart Disease (CHD): Leading cause of death in developed countries.
• Type A Personality: Competitive, aggressive, impatient; higher CHD risk.
• Type B Personality: Easygoing, relaxed; lower CHD risk.
• Pessimism and Depression:
  • Pessimists are twice as likely to develop heart disease.
  • Depression is a strong predictor of heart problems.

Gender Differences in Stress Response

• Women: More likely to engage in "tend and befriend" strategies (seek support and care).
• Men: More prone to withdrawal and aggression, or numb emotions.

Module 40: Coping with Stress

Coping Strategies

1. Problem-Focused Coping:

   • Tackles stressor directly (e.g., planning, seeking solutions).
   • Effective when the stressor is controllable.

2. Emotion-Focused Coping:

   • Reduces emotional distress (e.g., seeking support, distraction).
   • Effective when stressor cannot be changed.

Perceived Control

• More perceived control leads to better health outcomes.
• Example: Elderly patients with choices in care demonstrate better outcomes.

Learned Helplessness (Seligman)

• After exposure to uncontrollable stress, individuals may cease attempts to escape even when possible.
• Associated with depression and external locus of control.

Locus of Control

• Internal Locus: Belief that one controls their destiny.
• External Locus: Belief that outside forces control outcomes.
• Individuals with internal locus tend to achieve more and maintain better health.

Self-Control

• Ability to regulate impulses and delay gratification.
• High self-control leads to better relationships, school performance, and overall health.

Optimism vs. Pessimism

• Optimists: Expect positive outcomes; cope better with stress and have longer lifespans.
• Pessimists: More prone to illness.

Social Support

• Close Relationships:
  • Calm cardiovascular and strengthen the immune system.
  • Can reduce blood pressure.
• Expressing Emotions: Journaling or therapy enhances both physical and emotional health.

Stress Reduction Techniques

• Exercise: Increases arousal and calms stress response over time.
• Relaxation/Mindfulness Meditation: Effective in reducing depression, anxiety, and stress hormones.
• Spiritual Engagement: Regular attendance at religious services associated with longer life spans; provides community and healthy behavior.

Module 41: Social Thinking

Social Psychology

• Definition: Scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to others.
• Focus on situational vs. dispositional influences on behavior.

Attribution Theory (Fritz Heider)

• Attributing behavior to:
  • Dispositional Attribution: Based on traits.
  • Situational Attribution: Based on context.
• Fundamental Attribution Error: Tendency to overestimate personality traits and underestimate situational influences (more common in individualist cultures).

Attitudes and Actions

• Attitudes influence behavior more when external influences are minimal.
• Actions can affect attitudes:
  • Foot-in-the-door phenomenon: Agreeing to small requests lead to larger ones.
  • Role Playing: Behavior can shape beliefs (e.g., Zimbardo's prison study).

Cognitive Dissonance Theory (Leon Festinger)

• Clash between attitudes and actions causes discomfort (dissonance).
• Individuals tend to change their attitudes to align with their behavior (e.g., justifying a purchase).

Module 42: Social Influence and Conformity

Conformity

• Definition: Adjusting behavior or thinking to fit group standards.
• Asch’s Line Experiment: Highlighted conformity to incorrect group answers about line lengths.

Why Do We Conform?

1. Normative Social Influence: To gain social approval or avoid disapproval; driven by a desire to be liked.
2. Informational Social Influence: To conform because of belief that others are correct; driven by a desire to be right.

Obedience – Milgram’s Shock Experiment

• Stanley Milgram: Showed participants administering shocks because of authority figures.
• Findings:
  • Over 60% obeyed to the highest voltage.
  • Obedience was high when authority was:
  • Close or perceived as legitimate.
  • Victim was depersonalized.
  • No role models for defiance present.

Group Behavior

1. Social Facilitation: Improved performance on easy tasks when being observed; poorer performance on complex tasks.
2. Social Loafing: Group members exert less effort than when working alone due to reduced accountability.
3. Deindividuation: Loss of self-awareness in groups leading to impulsive behavior (e.g., riots).
4. Group Polarization: Group discussions tend to strengthen pre-existing attitudes.
5. Groupthink: Desire for harmony suppresses dissent in decision-making (e.g., Bay of Pigs invasion).

Module 43-44: Attraction, Love, and Helping Behavior

Factors Increasing Interpersonal Attraction

1. Proximity:
   • Mere exposure effect: Increased liking with repeated exposure.
2. Physical Attractiveness:
   • Significant impact on first impressions; associated with social attributes.
3. Similarity:
   • Shared values, interests, and beliefs lead to more compatible relationships.

Types of Love

1. Passionate Love: Intense absorption typically present in early relationships.
2. Companionate Love: Deep affection that develops over time, tied to mutual giving and self-disclosure.
   • Equity: Balance of giving and receiving.
   • Self-Disclosure: Sharing intimate details fosters connection.

Altruism and Helping

• Altruism: Selfless concern for others.
• Bystander Effect: Greater numbers of bystanders lead to less likelihood of individual intervention due to diffusion of responsibility.
• Decision-Making Model of Helping:
  1. Notice the event.
  2. Interpret it as an emergency.
  3. Assume responsibility.
  4. Attempt to help.

Social Norms for Helping

1. Social Exchange Theory: Helping occurs when benefits outweigh costs.
2. Reciprocity Norm: Help those who help you.
3. Social Responsibility Norm: Help those who depend on us.

Conflict & Peacemaking

• Social Traps: Pursuit of self-interest leads to mutually harmful behavior.
• Mirror-Image Perceptions: Each side views itself as moral, the other as evil.
• Cooperation: Shared goals can reduce conflict.
• GRIT (Graduated and Reciprocated Initiatives in Tension Reduction): Strategy for de-escalation through small conciliatory gestures.

Module 45: Introduction to Personality & Psychodynamic Theories

What is Personality?

• Characteristic patterns of thinking, feeling, acting aiming to describe, explain, and predict behavior.

Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory

• Key Concepts:
  • Unconscious Mind: Contains unacceptable thoughts and feelings influencing behavior.
  • Mind Structure (Iceberg Model):
  • Id: Pleasure principle, drives, and desires (unconscious).
  • Ego: Reality principle, mediates between id and superego.
  • Superego: Internalized ideals, morality, provides guilt and pride.

Freud’s Psychosexual Stages

• Stages of Development:
  1. Oral (0-18 months): Pleasure from sucking/biting.
  2. Anal (18-36 months): Pleasure from bowel/bladder control.
  3. Phallic (3-6 years): Genital pleasure; Oedipus/Electra complex.
  4. Latency (6-puberty): Sexual feelings dormant.
  5. Genital (Puberty+): Sexual interests mature.
• Fixation: Lingering focus on an earlier stage (e.g., oral fixation may cause smoking).

Defense Mechanisms

• Unconscious tactics to reduce anxiety by distorting reality; all rely on some degree of repression.
  • Regression: Retreating to an earlier stage (thumb sucking).
  • Reaction Formation: Switching impulses to opposites (exaggerated kindness).
  • Projection: Attributing own impulses to others.
  • Rationalization: Self-justifying reasons.
  • Displacement: Shifting impulses toward safer targets.
  • Denial: Refusing to believe reality.

Neo-Freudians

• Agreed with Freud but focused less on sexual drives.
  • Alfred Adler: Inferiority complex.
  • Karen Horney: Emphasized social relationships, criticized Freud’s sexism.
  • Carl Jung: Collective unconscious, archetypes.

Module 46: Humanistic and Trait Theories

Humanistic Theories

• Focused on healthy personal growth and self-actualization.
• Abraham Maslow:
  • Hierarchy of Needs: Basic needs → Safety → Love/Belonging → Esteem → Self-Actualization.
  • Self-actualized individuals: Self-aware, ethical, loving, spontaneous.
• Carl Rogers:
  • Focused on client-centered therapy emphasizing genuineness, acceptance (unconditional positive regard), and empathy.

Criticisms of Humanistic Theories

• Concepts are often seen as vague, excessively individualistic, and unrealistically optimistic.

Trait Theories

• Describe personality traits as stable and measurable:
  • Tools: Factor analysis to identify trait clusters; personality inventories (e.g., MMPI).
• Hans & Sybil Eysenck: Introduced traits of extraversion vs. introversion and emotional stability vs. instability.
• Big Five (OCEAN):
  • Openness: Imaginative, creative.
  • Conscientiousness: Organized, dependable.
  • Extraversion: Sociable, energetic.
  • Agreeableness: Trusting, cooperative.
  • Neuroticism: Anxious, self-pitying.
  • Traits are stable, somewhat heritable, and applicable across cultures.

Module 47: Social-Cognitive Theories and the Self

Bandura’s Social-Cognitive Perspective

• Reciprocal Determinism: Behavior influenced by interaction among personal factors, environment, and behavior.
• Examples of Reciprocal Influences:
  • Choosing environments (clubs, teams).
  • Interpreting events based on personality traits.
  • Behaviors influencing situational responses.
• Self: Organizer of thoughts, feelings, and actions; involves possible selves and self-esteem.

Self-Esteem & Self-Efficacy

• Self-Esteem: How we feel about ourselves; affects conformity and stress management.
• Self-Efficacy: Belief in one's ability to succeed; influences motivation.

Dangers of Excessive Self-Esteem

• Narcissism: Overly self-focused and self-loving behaviors.
• Self-Serving Bias: Tendency to view oneself favorably; accepting credit for success while blaming others for failure.

Evaluating Personality Theories

Module 48: Psychological Disorders

What is a Psychological Disorder?

• A syndrome marked by:
  1. Deviant: Behavior differs from cultural norms.
  2. Distressful: Causes suffering.
  3. Dysfunctional: Interferes with daily life.

Key Terms

• Disorder: Condition marked by dysfunction and distress.
• Deviant: Behavior that varies from societal expectations.
• Distress: Individual's suffering.
• Dysfunction: Impairment in everyday functioning.

Perspectives on Disorders

1. Medical Model:
   • Disorders have physical causes and can often be diagnosed and treated.
2. Biopsychosocial Model:
   • Disorders arise from biological, psychological, and social-cultural factors.

DSM-5 (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders)

• Classifies 400+ disorders, estimates prevalence.
• Criticisms include broad definitions and potential stigmatization.

Rates of Psychological Disorders in the U.S.

• Prevalence Estimates:
  • Depression/Bipolar: 9.3%
  • Phobias: 8.7%
  • Social Anxiety: 6.8%
  • ADHD: 4.1%
  • PTSD: 3.5%
  • GAD: 3.1%
  • Schizophrenia: 1.1%
  • OCD: 1.0%

Suicide & Self-Injury

• Suicide:
  • Higher risk in isolated individuals feeling like a burden; gender differences in attempts versus completions.
• Non-Suicidal Self-Injury (NSSI):
  • Includes harmful behaviors for attention/help or relief; motivations vary.

Module 49: Anxiety Disorders, OCD & PTSD

Overview of Anxiety Disorders

• Characterized by distressing, persistent anxiety or maladaptive behaviors to alleviate anxiety.

Types of Anxiety Disorders

1. Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD):
   • Ongoing worry for 6+ months; symptoms include jitteriness, sleep disruption.
2. Panic Disorder:
   • Recurrent panic attacks; fear of next attack leads to avoidance.
3. Phobias:
   • Irrational fears linked to specific objects/situations or social judgment.

OCD (Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder)

• Obsessions: Persistent intrusive thoughts.
• Compulsions: Repetitive behaviors aimed at reducing anxiety.
• Symptoms must be time-consuming and disrupt daily life.

PTSD (Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder)

• Symptoms following trauma lasting 4+ weeks: nightmares, hyper-vigilance, social withdrawal.
• Higher incidence in women and those with sensitive limbic systems.

Understanding Anxiety, OCD, and PTSD

• Conditioning (Learning Perspective): Classically conditioning associations with fear.
• Cognition: Observational learning of fears; hypervigilance to threats.
• Biology: Genetic predisposition; brain activity patterns associated with conditions.

Module 50: Depressive & Bipolar Disorders

Major Depressive Disorder (MDD)

• Must possess 1+ of the first two symptoms plus 5 total:
  1. Depressed mood most of the day
  2. Loss of interest (anhedonia)
  3. Changes in appetite/weight
  4. Sleep disturbances
  5. Low energy/fatigue
  6. Feelings of worthlessness
  7. Trouble concentrating
  8. Thoughts of death/suicide
• Considered prolonged, persistent, and disabling.

Persistent Depressive Disorder (Dysthymia)

• A milder form of chronic depression lasting 2+ years; lower mood with at least two additional symptoms.

Bipolar Disorder

• Alternates between depression and mania (euphoric mood, impulsivity).
  • Bipolar I: Full mania episodes.
  • Bipolar II: Hypomania+ depression.

Biological Influences on Mood Disorders

• Genetic factors significant, especially in bipolar disorder.
• Brain activity patterns linked to depressive and manic episodes.
• Neurotransmitter levels impact mood regulation.

Social-Cognitive Perspective

• Depression correlated with negative explanatory style, learned helplessness, and rumination (repetitive issue focus).
• Lifestyle factors including diet and exercise can affect mood levels.

Module 51: Schizophrenia

What is Schizophrenia?

• Psychological disorder marked by:
  • Delusions
  • Hallucinations
  • Disorganized speech
  • Diminished/inappropriate emotional expression
• Affects about 1% of the population.

Symptoms of Schizophrenia

• Positive Symptoms (excesses): Hallucinations, delusions, disorganized thought/behavior.
• Negative Symptoms (deficits): Flat affect, avolition, anhedonia, alogia, catatonia.

Course of Schizophrenia

• Chronic (Process): Slow onset, linked with negative symptoms; poor recovery without treatment.
• Acute (Reactive): Rapid onset, more positive symptoms; better recovery chances with treatment.

Biological Factors of Schizophrenia

• Dopamine Hypothesis: Overactivity and receptor density intensify symptoms.
• Brain Structure: Structural abnormalities like ventricular enlargement and reduced frontal lobe function correlate.
• Prenatal Factors: Infections during pregnancy and low birth weight increasingly risk disorder onset.
• Genetic Risk: Higher concordance in identical twins, emphasizing genetic components versus environmental ones.

Module 52: Dissociative, Personality, and Eating Disorders

Dissociative Disorders

• Disruptions in consciousness, memory, or identity:

1. Dissociative Amnesia: Loss of memory often without physical cause.
2. Dissociative Fugue: Sudden travel away from home with identity confusion.
3. Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID): Presence of two or more distinct personalities linked to severe trauma.

Personality Disorders

• Characterized by enduring behavior patterns impairing social function:
  1. Anxious (e.g., Avoidant PD): Fear of rejection.
  2. Eccentric/Odd (e.g., Schizoid PD): Social detachment.
  3. Dramatic/Impulsive:
  • Borderline: Instability in mood/relationships.
  • Histrionic: Attention-seeking.
  • Narcissistic: Grandiosity.
  • Antisocial: Lack of regard for rights of others; traits like dishonesty and aggression.

Antisocial Personality Disorder (APD)

• Must have exhibited qualifying traits since age 15; includes lack of remorse.
• Associated risk factors include childhood trauma, impulsivity, and reduced amygdala response.

Eating Disorders

1. Anorexia Nervosa: Starvation despite being underweight; can involve perfectionism.
2. Bulimia Nervosa: Binge followed by purging behavior.
3. Binge-Eating Disorder: Bingeing without purging; tends to cause distress.

• Causes often linked to cultural ideals, control issues, depression, and genetics.

Module 53: Neurodevelopmental Disorders

Definition

• Begin in childhood; involve brain abnormalities affecting behavior, communication, cognitions:

1. Intellectual Disability:
   • Characterized by low IQ and difficulties in adaptive functioning.
2. Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD):
   • Involves social interaction impairments and restricted behaviors; often hyper-sensitive to stimuli.
3. Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD):
   • Diagnosed with symptoms affecting functioning across multiple settings; treated with stimulants and behavioral strategies.

Module 54: Introduction to Therapy & Psychological Therapies

What is Therapy?

• Psychotherapy: Psychological techniques used to help people overcome difficulties.
• Biomedical Therapy: Treatment for psychological disorders impacting the nervous system.
• Eclectic Approach: Incorporates multiple techniques based on client needs.

Types of Psychotherapy

1. Psychoanalysis (Freud): Focus on unconscious thoughts and childhood memories using techniques like free association.
2. Psychodynamic Therapy: Modern, time-limited focus on past influences on present behaviors.
3. Humanistic Therapy: Emphasizes self-growth and client-centered approaches with empathy.
4. Behavior Therapy: Focuses on changing undesirable behaviors using classical and operant conditioning.
5. Cognitive Therapy: Aims to alter negative thought patterns; effective for various disorders.
6. Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT): Combines cognitive and behavioral strategies for diverse issues.
7. Group and Family Therapy: Addresses dynamics in groups/families; support from peers is emphasized.

Module 55: Evaluating Psychotherapy

Does Therapy Work?

• While client satisfaction may be influenced by external factors, research shows psychotherapy generally effective.

Which Therapies Work Best?

• Best for specific issues:
  • Phobias, compulsions: Behavior therapy
  • Depression, anxiety: Cognitive and CBT
  • Family issues: Family/group therapy

Evidence-Based Practice

• Combines best research, clinical expertise, and patient preferences.

Common Elements of Effective Therapy

• Includes hope, new perspectives, and empathic client-therapist relationships.

Culture and Values

• Therapist background can influence treatment effectiveness; cultural matches yield better outcomes.

Therapist Types

Module 56: Biomedical Therapies & Prevention

Biomedical Therapies

• Aim to alter brain chemistry through medications, brain stimulation, and surgery.

Drug Therapies (Psychopharmacology)

Brain Stimulation Therapies

1. Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT): For severe depression, effective but may cause memory loss.
2. Repetitive Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (rTMS): Stimulates brain areas with fewer side effects.
3. Deep Brain Stimulation (DBS): Involves implanting electrodes in specific areas of the brain.
4. Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation (tDCS): Uses weak currents; clinical results are varied.

Psychosurgery (Rare)

• Historically included lobotomies; now more targeted, addressing extreme CMD.

Preventing Psychological Disorders

• Emphasize resilience, early interventions, and ensuring supportive environments.
• Therapeutic Lifestyle Changes (TLC): Exercise, adequate sleep, nutrition, and social connection positively affect mental health.