HASS

Geography

Climate Change:

  • Greenhouse Gases: Gases in the atmosphere that increase Earth’s surface temperature, including:

    • Carbon Dioxide

    • Methane

    • Nitrous Oxide

  • Consequences of Climate Change:

    • Melting ice caps

    • Rising sea levels

    • Coastal erosion

  • Ozone Layer: A region in the Earth's stratosphere that absorbs most of the Sun's ultraviolet radiation.

  • Global Warming: The overall average increase in the Earth's surface temperature.

Montreal Protocol (1987):

  • Objective: To halt the production and import of substances depleting the ozone layer.

  • Impacts:

    • Significant reduction in greenhouse gas emissions.

    • Estimated prevention of 135 gigatonnes of CO2 emissions.

    • Kigali amendment expected to prevent up to 105 billion tonnes of CO2.

  • Lessons Learned:

    • The necessity of global cooperation.

    • The importance of science in guiding policy decisions.

    • The need to balance environmental protection with economic considerations.

  • Successes:

    • 98% reduction in global ozone-depleting substances (ODS) since 1990.

    • Universal ratification by all member states.

    • Significant contributions to climate change mitigation efforts.

  • Key Terms of the Protocols:

    • Mandatory schedule for phasing out major ozone-depleting substances.

  • Number of Signatories:

    • Universal ratification: Signed by 197 countries.

Pollution:

  • Definition: The introduction of harmful materials (pollutants) into the environment.

    • Types of Pollution:

      • Air Pollution: Contamination of the atmosphere through the release of harmful substances and particles.

      • Land Pollution: Contamination of land due to harmful substances.

      • Water Pollution: Contamination of water bodies, including rivers, wetlands, estuaries, seas, and oceans.

Environmental World Views:

  • Human-Centered Views:

    • Egocentric: Individual self-interest is paramount, valuing everything else only in terms of support for personal lifestyle.

    • Anthropocentric: Humans are the most significant species, and nature exists primarily to support human life.

  • Earth-Centered Views:

    • Ecocentric: Emphasizes minimizing human impact on the environment and preserving biodiversity.

    • Biocentric: Belief in the responsible use of Earth's resources while acknowledging the rights of other species.

Concepts:

  • Erosion: The gradual removal and destruction of rock or soil in a specific area due to natural processes (e.g., rivers, sea, weather).

  • Deposition: The process of transporting eroded sediment to new locations via wind, water, or ice.

Coastal Landforms:

Features created along the sea through processes of erosion and deposition include:

  • Cliffs

  • Beaches

  • Sea arches

  • Spits

  • Sea stacks

  • Bars

  • Caves

  • Tombolos

  • Wave-cut platforms

  • Dunes

Salinity:

  • The buildup of salt in land and water, causing harm to both natural and built environments.

Damming Rivers:

  • Dams: Structures built to hold back water and create reservoirs for electricity generation or water supply.

4 S’s:

  • Source: Natural products that can be used or transformed by humans.

  • Sink: Natural processes that absorb human waste.

  • Service: Functions performed by natural environments.

  • Spirituality: The relationship between humans and the environment.

Civics and Citizenship

Powers in Governance:

  • Concurrent Powers: Areas where both federal and state governments can legislate, such as marriage, divorce, and taxation.

  • Exclusive Powers: Areas where only the federal government can legislate, such as defense and currency.

Threats to Democracy in Australia:

  • Media Bias: Many voters rely on media for information, which can lead to biased reporting.

  • Influence of Vested Interests: Wealthy individuals and corporations can have an outsized influence on government policies by making significant donations to political parties.

  • Organized Crime: Criminal organizations carefully plan illicit activities that can undermine societal stability.

  • Corruption: Abuse of power for personal gain, compromising democratic processes.

  • Lawlessness: Unruly groups with little regard for law, often leading to organized crime involvement.

Safeguards to Democracy:

  • Election Process:

    • Governments are elected by the people.

    • Compulsory voting ensures representation of the entire population.

    • Independent electoral commissions maintain fair and free elections.

    • Votes are confidential and counted accurately.

  • Upholding Shared Values:

    • Governments must enforce laws promoting dignity, equality, and respect for all citizens.

    • Provision of necessary structures and services for a cohesive society.

  • Right to Dissent:

    • Individuals can oppose government views without fear of punishment or censorship.

  • Dispute Resolution Processes:

    • Negotiation: Dialogue between parties to resolve concerns.

    • Mediation: Involvement of an independent third party to facilitate conflict resolution.

    • Reconciliation: Efforts to renew relationships requiring mutual forgiveness.

International Agreements Australia is a Party to:

  • 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR): The first statement of fundamental human rights.

    • Article 14 supports the right to seek asylum.

  • 1951 Refugee Convention:

    • Definition and protection obligations for refugees, preventing their return to dangerous situations.

  • International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR):

    • Guarantees the right to life, liberty, and humane treatment for all individuals.

  • Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC):

    • Ensures the rights of children, including best interests, protection from violence, and family unity.

  • Convention Against Torture (CAT):

    • Prohibits torture and inhumane treatment, ensuring safety for refugees and asylum seekers.

Australia’s Constitution (A.C):

  • Rules governing how Australia is managed.

  • Drafted between 1891-1900, approved by the British parliament on July 9, 1900, and effective from January 1, 1901.

  • Referendum Process:

    • Proposals must pass both houses of Parliament and receive public approval.

    • Requires a double majority: a majority in Australia overall and in four out of six states.

    • If successful, changes are enacted by the Governor-General.

Strengths of the Referendum Process:

  • Provides direct democratic participation.

  • Encourages public awareness and discussion.

  • Prevents rapid changes through the double majority requirement.

Weaknesses of the Referendum Process:

  • Organizing can be costly.

  • Complexity can confuse the electorate.

  • Low success rates, with only 8 of 44 referendums passing.

  • Campaigns can be swayed by political influence.

Bali 9 – Case Study:

  • The Bali 9 attempted to smuggle 8.3 kg of heroin valued at $4 million out of Indonesia.

  • Arrested on April 17, 2005, in Denpasar airport and a hotel in Khufa.

  • Chan and Sukumaran received death sentences for recruiting while accomplices faced life in prison or reduced sentences.

  • Resulting diplomatic strain affected Australia-Indonesia relations:

    • Australia recalled its ambassador on the day of the executions, impacting tourism and sparking discussions on the death penalty and human rights.

Australia’s Treatment of Asylum Seekers and Refugees:

  • Asylum Seekers: Individuals fleeing their country due to safety concerns, seeking resettlement.

  • Refugees: Those who cannot return home due to persecution.

Manus Island Case Study:

  • Conditions on Manus Island were horrendous (no personal belongings, constant verbal abuse).

  • Asylum seekers faced extreme discomfort and dehumanization.

  • Australia’s international obligations are questioned regarding its treatment of asylum seekers and adherence to the 1951 Refugee Convention.

Offshore Processing:

  • Detainees on Manus Island and Nauru report violence, exploitation, and poor medical care.

  • Financial cost of offshore detention is approximately $570,000 per detainee annually, raising debates about financial prudence.

  • Australia continues to maintain a steady intake of refugees despite restrictive policies aimed at controlling boat arrivals.

2023 Voice to Parliament Referendum:

  • The referendum proposed creating an Indigenous advisory body in the Constitution, requiring national support and widespread state approval.

  • Results: 60% voted No, and 40% voted Yes overall.

  • All states voted No, with only the ACT voting Yes. The proposal failed as it did not meet the double majority requirement.

Origin of the Voice to Parliament:

  • The proposal stemmed from the Uluru Statement from the Heart, advocating for an Indigenous advisory body for decision-making.