Early American History Comprehensive Review

Early Exploration and Colonization

Coastal Migration Theory

• The Coastal Migration Theory posits that the first inhabitants of the Americas arrived via a coastal route, migrating along Beringia (the land bridge connecting Asia and North America) and then southward along the Pacific coast, rather than solely through an ice-free corridor in the interior. This theory suggests that maritime travel and coastal resources played a significant role in early human dispersal.

Key Figures in Early Colonization

• Hernán Cortés: A Spanish conquistador who led an expedition that caused the fall of the Aztec Empire and brought large parts of mainland Mexico under the rule of the King of Castile in the early 16th century. His actions were characterized by military conquest, exploitation of indigenous divisions, and the spread of European diseases.

• Christopher Columbus: An Italian explorer who completed four voyages across the Atlantic Ocean, initiating the widespread European exploration and colonization of the Americas. While historically seen as a 'discoverer,' his arrival marked the beginning of devastating impacts on indigenous populations. His 'success' from a European perspective was in opening up the "New World" to European powers, but it led to genocide, enslavement, and cultural destruction for native peoples.

• Bartolomé de Las Casas: A Spanish Dominican friar and historian who was an early critic of the atrocities committed by Spanish conquistadors against indigenous populations in the Americas. He famously wrote "A Short Account of the Destruction of the Indies," advocating for the rights and humane treatment of Native Americans. He proposed the use of African slaves as an alternative labor source, a stance he later regretted.

• John Calvin: A French theologian, pastor, and reformer in Geneva during the Protestant Reformation. His teachings, known as Calvinism, emphasized predestination, the absolute sovereignty of God, and the importance of a strict, moral life. Calvinism significantly influenced the religious beliefs of many early European settlers, particularly Puritans, who sought to establish communities based on Calvinist principles.

• Pocahontas: A Native American woman, daughter of Chief Powhatan, who played a crucial role in the early interactions between the Powhatan Confederacy and the English colonists at Jamestown. She is famously associated with John Smith, having allegedly saved his life. Her marriage to tobacco planter John Rolfe in 1614 helped foster a period of peace between the two groups.

• John Smith: An English soldier, explorer, colonial governor, and author who played a vital role in the establishment of the Jamestown colony, the first permanent English settlement in North America. His leadership, strict discipline ('he who does not work shall not eat'), and diplomatic (and sometimes confrontational) efforts with the Powhatan Confederacy were crucial for the colony's survival during its initial difficult years.

Characteristics of Native American Groups (Pre-Columbian and Early Contact)

• Algonquians: A large and diverse group of Native American tribes predominantly located in the eastern woodlands, including groups like the Powhatan, Lenape, and Wampanoag. They generally lived in agricultural settlements, often practicing slash-and-burn farming, hunting, and fishing. Their political structures varied but often involved sachems (chiefs) with councils.

• Iroquois (Haudenosaunee): A powerful confederacy of originally five (later six) distinct nations (Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, Seneca, and Tuscarora) in what is now upstate New York. They were known for their sophisticated political structure, the Iroquois Confederacy, which influenced colonial thinkers like Benjamin Franklin. They lived in longhouses, practiced extensive agriculture (corn, beans, squash - the 'Three Sisters'), and were formidable warriors and diplomats.

• Aztec: A Mesoamerican civilization that flourished in central Mexico from the 14th to 16th centuries. Their capital, Tenochtitlan, was a massive, advanced city. The Aztec Empire was characterized by a complex social hierarchy, advanced astronomical knowledge, sophisticated agriculture (chinampas), a tribute system, and a polytheistic religion that included human sacrifice. They were conquered by Hernán Cortés.

• Mississippian: A complex, mound-building Native American culture that flourished in the central and southeastern United States from approximately 800 to 1500 CE. They were characterized by large-scale maize agriculture, complex chiefdoms, extensive trade networks, and monumental earthwork mounds for religious and ceremonial purposes. Cahokia, near modern-day St. Louis, was a major Mississippian center.

• Anasazi (Ancestral Puebloans): An ancient Native American culture concentrated in the Southwest United States ('Four Corners' region) from about 1 to 1300 CE. They were known for their advanced architectural styles, including cliff dwellings (e.g., Mesa Verde) and pueblos, and sophisticated dryland farming techniques. Their society was highly organized, often centered around maize agriculture and Kivas (ceremonial structures).

Reasons for European Exploration (see New World presentation)

• God: Religious fervor following the Crusades and the Protestant Reformation motivated missionaries to spread Christianity and escape religious persecution.

• Gold: The desire for wealth, particularly precious metals like gold and silver, as well as lucrative trade goods (spices, silks) from Asia. Mercantilism, an economic theory emphasizing a favorable balance of trade and the accumulation of bullion, fueled this drive.

• Glory: The desire for national prestige, power, and personal fame among explorers and monarchs. New trade routes, new lands, and new resources contributed to the growing power of European nations.

• Technological Advancements: Innovations in navigation (e.g., astrolabe, compass), shipbuilding (e.g., caravels), and cartography made long-distance voyages possible.

Effects of the Protestant Reformation on Exploration and Colonization

• The Protestant Reformation, initiated by Martin Luther in 1517, led to religious schism and conflict across Europe. This had several profound effects on exploration and colonization:

  • Religious Freedom/Persecution: Many Protestant groups (e.g., Puritans, Pilgrims, Quakers) sought to escape persecution in Europe, leading them to found colonies in North America where they could practice their faith freely. This directly spurred English colonization, particularly in New England.

  • National Rivalries: Religious divisions intensified national rivalries between Catholic powers (Spain, France) and Protestant powers (England, Netherlands), leading to a race for colonies and resources to strengthen their respective nations both spiritually and economically.

  • Justification for Conquest: Some Protestant doctrines, particularly those emphasizing divine providence, were sometimes used to justify the conquest and displacement of indigenous populations, viewing their colonization as a divine mission.

  • Work Ethic: Calvinist theology, with its emphasis on hard work and thrift (the "Protestant work ethic"), contributed to the drive for economic success and expansion in the colonies.

Columbian Exchange

• The Columbian Exchange refers to the widespread transfer of plants, animals, culture, human populations (including slaves), communicable diseases, technology, and ideas between the Americas (the New World) and the Old World (Europe, Africa, and Asia) in the 15th and 16th centuries, following Christopher Columbus's voyages.

  • From Old World to New World: Wheat, rice, sugar, horses, cattle, pigs, smallpox, measles, influenza, typhus, Christianity, iron tools.

  • From New World to Old World: Maize (corn), potatoes, tomatoes, tobacco, beans, cocoa, syphilis.

• Significance: It profoundly reshaped global ecology, agriculture, culture, and demographics. It led to population booms in Europe due to new food sources but devastated Native American populations through disease and exploitation.

Encomienda System

• The Encomienda system was a labor system implemented by the Spanish Crown in the Americas during the colonization period. It granted Spanish encomenderos (conquistadors, settlers) the right to demand labor or tribute from indigenous people in a particular area. In return, the encomenderos were theoretically responsible for protecting and Christianizing the indigenous people. In practice, it often devolved into brutal forced labor and a form of de facto slavery, leading to severe exploitation and population decline among Native Americans. It was officially abolished in the 18th century but replaced by other coercive labor systems.

Pueblo Revolt (1680)

• Also known as Popé's Rebellion, this was an uprising of the Pueblo people against Spanish colonizers in the province of Santa Fe de Nuevo México. The revolt was a reaction to the Spanish suppression of native religious practices, forced labor, and heavy taxation. Led by Popé, the Pueblo successfully drove the Spanish out of New Mexico for twelve years (1680-1692), marking the most successful Native American uprising against European colonization in North America. It demonstrated the power of native unity and resistance.

Spanish Armada Issue from 1588

• In 1588, King Philip II of Spain launched a massive naval fleet, the Spanish Armada, to invade England. The Armada's objective was to depose the Protestant Queen Elizabeth I, stop English raids on Spanish treasure ships, and curb England's support for the Dutch Revolt against Spanish rule. The English navy, with assistance from severe storms ('the Protestant wind'), successfully defeated the Armada. This defeat marked a turning point, signaling the decline of Spanish naval dominance and the rise of England as a major European sea power, paving the way for greater English colonization efforts in North America without as much fear of Spanish intervention.

Jamestown (Established 1607)

• Year Established: 1607

• Initial Purpose: The primary purpose of Jamestown, founded by the Virginia Company of London, was economic – to find gold, extract natural resources, and find a westward passage to Asia (Northwest Passage). It was intended as a profit-making venture for its investors.

• Characteristics: Early years were marked by extreme hardship, including disease (malaria, dysentery), starvation ('starving time'), and conflicts with the Powhatan Confederacy. The initial settlers were often gentlemen unaccustomed to labor. Tobacco cultivation, pioneered by John Rolfe, became the economic savior of the colony.

• Ultimate Success: Jamestown eventually succeeded by cultivating tobacco as a lucrative cash crop, which attracted more settlers and ensured its economic viability. It became the first permanent English settlement in North America and served as a model for future English colonies, illustrating the challenges and potential of colonial ventures, heavily reliant on cash crops and, eventually, slave labor.

Religion in the Colonies

• New England (e.g., Massachusetts Bay, Plymouth): Predominantly Puritan (Congregationalist). These colonies were founded by religious dissenters seeking to create a 'city upon a hill'—a model Christian society. Religion deeply influenced laws, government, and daily life.

• Mid-Atlantic (e.g., Pennsylvania, New York, New Jersey, Delaware): Characterized by religious diversity and tolerance. Pennsylvania was founded by Quakers (William Penn) and welcomed various Protestant sects (Mennonites, Lutherans, German Pietists) and Catholics. New York had Dutch Reformed, Anglicans, Jews, and others. This region fostered a more pluralistic religious environment.

• Chesapeake (e.g., Virginia, Maryland): Primarily Anglican (Church of England). Maryland, though founded by Lord Baltimore for persecuted English Catholics, quickly became a majority Protestant colony, leading to the Maryland Toleration Act. In Virginia, the Anglican Church was the established church and was tax-supported.

• Southern Colonies (e.g., North and South Carolina, Georgia): Mainly Anglican, though generally less strict than in Virginia due to dispersed populations. Other Protestant groups, such as Baptists and Presbyterians, gained followers, especially during the Great Awakening.

Slave Codes

• Slave codes were sets of laws enacted in the British North American colonies (and later the United States) specifically to regulate the institution of slavery. These laws defined the status of slaves as property (chattel), not persons, and denied them most basic rights. Key characteristics included:

  • Hereditary Slavery: Status flowed through the mother (partus sequitur ventrem), meaning children of enslaved women were also enslaved.

  • Restriction of Rights: Prohibited slaves from owning property, testifying in court against whites, marrying whites, learning to read or write, or leaving plantations without permission.

  • Legalized Violence: Granted masters extensive power, often including physical punishment, and insulated them from prosecution for harming or even killing slaves under certain circumstances.

  • Racial Basis: Increasingly codified slavery as a system based on race, solidifying the idea of African inferiority.

• Significance: These codes were crucial in establishing and maintaining racialized slavery as a central economic and social institution in the southern colonies and beyond, ensuring social control and preventing slave uprisings.

Characteristics of New England vs. Chesapeake Area in 17th Century

Stono Rebellion (1739)

• A slave rebellion that occurred in the British colony of South Carolina. Led by an enslaved African named Jemmy, a group of about 20 slaves seized weapons and marched south, killing white slave owners and recruiting more slaves, aiming to reach Spanish Florida where they hoped to find freedom. The rebellion was ultimately suppressed by the colonial militia after about 25 colonists and 35-50 enslaved people were killed.

• Significance: It was the largest slave revolt in the British mainland colonies. In response, South Carolina enacted stricter slave codes (the Negro Act of 1740), further limiting slave freedoms to prevent future uprisings.

Indentured Servants

• Indentured servants were individuals who agreed to work for a specified period (typically 4 to 7 years) for a master in the American colonies in exchange for passage to the New World, food, lodging, and sometimes 'freedom dues' (land, tools, or clothing) upon completion of their term. This system was a crucial source of labor for the early colonies, particularly in the Chesapeake, before the widespread adoption of African chattel slavery. However, many died before completing their terms due to harsh conditions, and those who survived often faced difficulty acquiring land or jobs.

Bacon’s Rebellion (1676)

• An armed rebellion led by Nathaniel Bacon against the rule of Governor William Berkeley of Virginia. The rebellion was fueled by several grievances:

  • Frontier Grievances: Frustration among landless freemen and indentured servants seeking land, and frontier settlers who felt the colonial government wasn't protecting them from Native American attacks.

  • Political Exclusion: Berkeley's autocratic rule, corruption, and refusal to grant the vote to landless freemen.

  • Economic Discontent: Falling tobacco prices and high taxes.

• Bacon's forces attacked Native American tribes (both friendly and hostile) and eventually marched on Jamestown, burning it. Though Bacon died and the rebellion was suppressed, it had profound consequences:

  • Shift to Slavery: It highlighted the dangers of a large, restless class of landless, armed former indentured servants, accelerating the shift from indentured servitude to African chattel slavery as the primary labor source in the Chesapeake colonies.

  • Weakened Indigenous Relations: Further deteriorated relations between colonists and Native Americans.

  • Revealed Class Conflict: Exposed deep class tensions within colonial society.

Colonial Development and Imperial Crisis

Divine Right

• The political and religious doctrine of divine right asserts that a monarch's or ruler's authority comes directly from God, not from the consent of the people or any earthly power. Therefore, monarchs are accountable only to God and not to their subjects. This theory was used by European monarchs to justify their absolute power. In the context of British North America, it was a concept that colonial thinkers increasingly rejected, laying intellectual groundwork for ideas of self-governance and popular sovereignty that would fuel the American Revolution.

Headright System

• A system primarily used in the colonial south (especially Virginia and Maryland) to encourage immigration and settlement. It granted about 50 acres of land to any colonist who paid for his, or another's, passage to the New World. This system allowed large planters to accumulate vast tracts of land by paying for the passage of numerous indentured servants, thereby exacerbating social stratification and contributing to the expansion of plantation agriculture.

Metacom (King Philip)

• Metacom (also known as King Philip by the English) was a Wampanoag leader who led a vast indigenous confederation in King Philip's War (1675-1678) against English colonists in New England. This was one of the bloodiest conflicts in American colonial history, fought over land encroachment and cultural suppression. Metacom's goal was to stop Puritan expansion and preserve Native American ways of life. Despite initial Native American successes, the war ultimately resulted in a devastating defeat for the indigenous people of New England, leading to their further displacement and loss of autonomy.

Foundation of British North American Colonies (Purpose and/or How Established)

• Economic Opportunity: Many colonies (e.g., Virginia, Carolinas) were founded primarily for economic gain, seeking cash crops (tobacco, rice, indigo), raw materials, or trade routes. Chartered by joint-stock companies (like the Virginia Company) or granted as proprietary colonies.

• Religious Freedom/Refuge: Others (e.g., Massachusetts Bay, Plymouth, Pennsylvania, Maryland) were established by religious dissenters seeking refuge from persecution in Europe and the opportunity to build societies based on their religious principles.

• Strategic Advantage: Some were founded for strategic military or imperial reasons, such as Georgia as a buffer against Spanish Florida, or New York after being seized from the Dutch.

• Royal Control: Over time, many proprietary or charter colonies eventually reverted to royal colonies, placing them under direct control of the British Crown.

Jonathan Edwards (1703-1758)

• An American revivalist preacher, philosopher, and Congregational Protestant theologian. He was one of the most important figures in the First Great Awakening, a religious revival that swept through the American colonies in the 1730s and 1740s. Edwards is best known for his powerful, Hellfire-and-brimstone sermon, "Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God" (1741), which emphasized human depravity and the immediate need for personal conversion. His fervent preaching was central to the revival's emotional impact and evangelical message, challenging established church authority and fostering a more personal, experiential faith.

Roger Williams (1603-1683)

• A Puritan minister, theologian, and advocate for religious freedom and the rights of Native Americans. He was banished from Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1636 for his radical views, including his opposition to compulsory church attendance, his belief in the separation of church and state, and his insistence that the colonists had no legitimate claim to Native American land without fair purchase. He subsequently founded the colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, which became a haven for religious dissenters and a beacon of religious toleration and separation of church and state in early America.

Virginia Company

• A joint-stock company chartered by King James I of England with the purpose of establishing settlements in North America. It comprised two main divisions: the Virginia Company of London and the Virginia Company of Plymouth. The London Company founded Jamestown in 1607. The company funded the expeditions and was granted a royal charter, expecting to profit from gold and other resources. However, it faced immense financial difficulties and its charter was revoked in 1624, making Virginia a royal colony. This model of corporate funding was an early way English colonies were established.

Glorious Revolution (1688-1689)

• What: The Glorious Revolution was a bloodless coup in England that resulted in the overthrow of King James II and the ascension of his Protestant daughter Mary II and her husband William III of Orange to the English throne. It was primarily driven by fears of a Catholic succession and James II's absolutist policies, which challenged parliamentary power.

• Why: It established parliamentary supremacy over the monarchy, setting a precedent for constitutional monarchy and individual liberties. In the American colonies, it had significant repercussions:

  • Dissolution of Dominion of New England: The news of the revolution sparked revolts against royal authority, leading to the collapse of the Dominion of New England (a super-colony created by James II to assert greater control).

  • Increased Colonial Autonomy: While leading to greater English oversight in some respects (e.g., more royal colonies), it also confirmed certain colonial rights and traditions of self-governance, inspiring colonists with concepts of natural rights and resistance to arbitrary power.

  • English Bill of Rights: The subsequent English Bill of Rights (1689) greatly influenced American political thought, emphasizing limited government, regular elections, and freedom from cruel and unusual punishment.

Salem Witch Trials (1692-1693)

• A series of hearings and prosecutions of people accused of witchcraft in colonial Massachusetts. Fueled by religious extremism, social anxieties, economic resentments, and community divisions (especially between established townspeople and frontier families), the trials led to the execution of 20 people (19 by hanging, 1 by pressing) and the deaths of several others in prison.

• Significance: The trials represented a dark chapter in American legal and social history, highlighting the dangers of mass hysteria, unsubstantiated accusations, fear, and the lack of due process. They are often cited as a cautionary tale against religious intolerance and judicial extremism.

Mercantilism

• An economic theory and policy that was dominant in Europe from the 16th to the 18th centuries. Mercantilism held that a nation's wealth and power were best increased by maximizing exports and minimizing imports to achieve a favorable balance of trade, and by accumulating precious metals (bullion). Colonies were seen as essential components of this system, serving as sources of raw materials for the mother country and as captive markets for manufactured goods.

• Impact on Colonies: British mercantilist policies, enforced through acts like the Navigation Acts, restricted colonial trade, manufacturing, and shipping to benefit Great Britain, leading to resentment and a desire for economic independence among colonists.

Pontiac’s Rebellion (1763)

• An armed conflict initiated by a loose confederation of Native American tribes, primarily from the Great Lakes region, Ohio Country, and Illinois Country, led by Pontiac, an Ottawa chief. The rebellion aimed to resist British westward expansion and policies following their victory in the French and Indian War. Native Americans, fearing British land hunger and their refusal to provide gifts (unlike the French), launched coordinated attacks on British forts and settlements along the frontier.

• Significance: While ultimately suppressed, Pontiac's Rebellion prompted the British government to issue the Proclamation of 1763, forbidding colonial settlement west of the Appalachian Mountains. This anger among colonists, who felt entitled to the western lands, contributed to growing tensions with Britain.

Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826)

• A prominent figure in the American Enlightenment, a Founding Father, the main author of the Declaration of Independence, and the third President of the United States. He was a champion of republicanism, advocating for individual liberty, limited government, and agrarian democracy. His presidency was marked by the Louisiana Purchase, the Lewis and Clark expedition, and efforts to reduce the national debt. He was a complex figure, famously owning slaves while articulating ideals of liberty and equality.

Grenville Acts

• A series of measures implemented by British Prime Minister George Grenville following the French and Indian War, aimed at raising revenue from the American colonies to help pay down Britain's war debt and cover the costs of colonial defense. These acts included:

  • Sugar Act (1764): Lowered the duty on molasses but strictly enforced collection, aiming to reduce smuggling and raise revenue.

  • Currency Act (1764): Prohibited colonies from issuing paper money, leading to a shortage of currency.

  • Stamp Act (1765): Required a tax stamp on all legal documents, newspapers, pamphlets, and playing cards. This act was particularly hated because it was a direct tax, affecting almost every colonist, and was imposed without colonial consent ('no taxation without representation').

• Significance: These acts sparked widespread colonial protest and resistance, marking a turning point in Anglo-American relations and contributing significantly to the movement towards the American Revolution.

French & Indian War (1754-1763) / Seven Years' War

• What Started It: The war began primarily due to escalating territorial disputes between France and Great Britain over control of the Ohio River Valley and western Pennsylvania. Both nations claimed the region, which was crucial for fur trade and westward expansion. Skirmishes, such as George Washington's defeat at Fort Necessity (see battles), ignited the conflict. It was part of a larger global conflict, the Seven Years' War, involving European powers.

• Outcome: British victory, solidified by the Treaty of Paris (1763). France lost all its North American mainland territories east of the Mississippi River to Britain (except New Orleans, ceded to Spain), and Spain ceded Florida to Britain. France retained only a few Caribbean islands.

• Significance: Dramatically altered the political landscape of North America, removing France as a major colonial power. However, the war left Britain with massive debt, leading to taxation of the colonies (Grenville Acts) and imperial policies that ultimately fueled colonial resentment and revolution.

Paxton Boys (1763)

• A group of Scots-Irish frontiersmen from Paxtang, Pennsylvania, who formed a vigilante group to retaliate against Native Americans following the French and Indian War and Pontiac's Rebellion. They massacred 20 peaceful Conestoga Indians (a Susquehannock remnant) near Lancaster, accusing them of aiding hostile tribes. They then marched on Philadelphia to demand greater protection and redress for their grievances against the colonial government, particularly its perceived leniency towards Native Americans.

• Significance: The incident highlighted the deep ethnic and racial tensions on the American frontier, as well as the divide between frontier settlers and the colonial elite in Quaker-dominated Philadelphia. It underscored the challenges of governing a diverse and expanding colonial population and the ongoing conflicts over land and Native American policy.

How Did the French and Spanish Establish Their North American Empires?

• French:

  • Focus: Primarily on the fur trade (beaver pelts) and establishing trading posts, particularly along the St. Lawrence River, Great Lakes, and Mississippi River (New France, Louisiana).

  • Demographics: Relatively few permanent settlers compared to the British. Emphasized alliances and trade relationships with Native American tribes (e.g., Huron, Algonquin) rather than land seizure for large-scale agriculture.

  • Governance: Highly centralized royal control (absolute monarchy) over New France. Military presence was significant for protecting trade routes and claims.

  • Religion: Catholic, driven by missionary efforts (Jesuits) to convert Native Americans.

• Spanish:

  • Focus: Extraction of wealth (gold, silver), establishment of agricultural and mining encomiendas, and conversion of indigenous populations to Catholicism.

  • Demographics: Larger numbers of settlers (conquistadors, missionaries, soldiers) than the French, but still a minority compared to the indigenous population. Significant intermixing of populations (mestizos).

  • Governance: Highly centralized and bureaucratic control from Spain via viceroyalties (e.g., New Spain) and a vast administrative apparatus.

  • Religion: Catholic, aggressively pursued conversion through missions (e.g., in California, New Mexico, Florida) and the encomienda system.

  • Geographic Reach: Extended from the Caribbean and Florida across Mexico, Central America, vast areas of South America, and into the American Southwest.

Gaspée Incident (1772)

• A pivotal event in the lead-up to the American Revolution. The HMS Gaspée was a British customs schooner known for aggressively enforcing unpopular trade regulations and harassing colonial shipping in Narragansett Bay, Rhode Island. In June 1772, the Gaspée ran aground. A group of Sons of Liberty, led by Abraham Whipple, boarded and burned the ship.

• Significance: While no one was harmed, the British government launched a royal commission of inquiry with the authority to bypass colonial courts and send suspects to England for trial. This attempted erosion of colonial judicial autonomy infuriated colonists, who viewed it as a direct threat to their rights as Englishmen, further unifying resistance against British imperial policies.

Boston Massacre (1770)

• A confrontation between British soldiers and a crowd of Bostonians. Tensions in Boston were high due to the presence of British troops (sent to enforce unpopular tax laws) and economic competition. On March 5, 1770, British soldiers fired into a crowd that had been taunting them and throwing projectiles, killing five colonists.

• Significance: Widely publicized by figures like Paul Revere and Samuel Adams as a symbol of British tyranny and brutality. Though the soldiers were largely acquitted in a trial defended by John Adams, the event galvanized anti-British sentiment, fueling the Patriot cause and radicalizing colonists against British rule. It effectively served as powerful propaganda for the American independence movement.

Sir Edmund Andros

• The English colonial administrator who served as governor of the Dominion of New England from 1686 to 1689. The Dominion was an administrative union of the New England colonies (and later New York and New Jersey) created by James II to centralize control, enforce the Navigation Acts, and curb colonial self-governance. Andros's policies, which included revoking land titles, restricting town meetings, taxing without consent, and enforcing the Anglican Church in Puritan strongholds, were highly unpopular.

• Significance: His arbitrary rule was widely resented and became a symbol of British imperial overreach. The news of the Glorious Revolution in England directly led to a colonial uprising in Boston, imprisoning Andros and dissolving the Dominion, reinforcing colonial determination for self-rule.

Boston Tea Party (1773)

• A political protest by American colonists against British taxation and the monopoly granted to the British East India Company. On December 16, 1773, a group of Bostonians, disguised as Native Americans, boarded three British ships in Boston Harbor and dumped 342 chests of tea into the water, protesting the Tea Act, which, while lowering the price of tea, implicitly recognized Parliament's right to tax the colonies.

• Significance: This act of defiance provoked a strong reaction from the British government, leading to the passage of the Intolerable Acts (Coercive Acts) in 1774. These punitive measures, aimed at punishing Massachusetts, further inflamed colonial resentment and pushed the colonies closer to rebellion, setting the stage for the American Revolution.

Lord Dunmore

• John Murray, the 4th Earl of Dunmore, was the last royal governor of Virginia. As tensions rose before the American Revolution, he attempted to assert British authority. In November 1775, he issued Dunmore's Proclamation, which promised freedom to enslaved people and indentured servants belonging to Patriot masters if they joined the British forces.

• Significance: Dunmore's Proclamation outraged slaveholding Patriots and solidified their resolve against Britain. It highlighted the complex role of slavery in the American Revolution, forcing colonists to confront the contradiction of fighting for liberty while denying it to others, and demonstrated Britain's willingness to exploit colonial divisions for strategic advantage.

Struggles of the Patriot Army (Continental Army)

• The Continental Army faced numerous hardships throughout the American Revolution:

  • Lack of Supplies: Chronic shortages of food, clothing, ammunition, and medical supplies.

  • Poor Training and Discipline: Initially, many soldiers were untrained militia, leading to high desertion rates and difficulty maintaining discipline.

  • Short Enlistments: Many soldiers enlisted for short terms, leading to a constant flux of manpower and loss of experienced troops.

  • Financial Instability: Congress lacked the power to tax effectively, leading to inflation, difficulty paying soldiers, and reliance on unreliable state contributions.

  • Disease: More soldiers died from disease (e.g., smallpox, dysentery) than from battle wounds.

  • Loyalist Opposition: Significant numbers of colonists remained loyal to the Crown, often aiding the British.

  • British Superiority: Facing the best-trained and equipped army and navy in the world.

Valley Forge (1777-1778)

• The site in Pennsylvania where General George Washington's Continental Army encamped during the brutal winter of 1777-1778 during the American Revolutionary War.

• Significance: Despite extreme hardships—starvation, disease, exposure to bitter cold (over 2,000 soldiers died)—Valley Forge became a symbol of American resilience and endurance. It was here that Baron von Steuben, a Prussian military officer, implemented a rigorous training program that significantly improved the discipline, organization, and fighting effectiveness of the Continental Army, transforming them into a professional fighting force capable of challenging the British.

Southern Strategy (British)

• A British military strategy adopted in the latter half of the American Revolutionary War, beginning in 1778. Recognizing a stalemate in the northern colonies and believing there was stronger Loyalist sentiment in the South, the British shifted their focus to conquering the southern colonies. The strategy involved:

  • Securing Ports: Capturing key port cities like Savannah and Charleston to establish bases.

  • Encouraging Loyalists: Arming and organizing Loyalists (including enslaved people promised freedom) to suppress Patriot forces.

  • Drawing out Washington: Hoping to draw Washington's main army south into a decisive battle, or to deplete Patriot resources.

• Outcome: Initially successful with significant British victories, the strategy ultimately failed due to strong Patriot resistance (guerrilla warfare), the resilience of the Continental Army under Nathanael Greene, and crucial French naval support, culminating in the British defeat at Yorktown.

Republicanism in Early America

• Republicanism was a dominant political ideology in early America (late 18th/early 19th centuries) that emphasized civic virtue, public service, and the common good of the community over individual self-interest. Key tenets included:

  • Sovereignty of the People: Power derived from the citizens, not a monarch.

  • Representative Government: Citizens elect representatives to make decisions on their behalf.

  • Liberty and Rights: Protection of individual rights, but often balanced with civic duties.

  • Distrust of Corruption: Fear of concentrated power and corruption, leading to a preference for limited government and checks and balances.

  • Agrarian Ideal: Often associated with the idea of a virtuous, independent yeoman farmer as the backbone of the republic (especially by Jeffersonian Republicans).

• Influence: This ideology deeply shaped the drafting of the Declaration of Independence, the Articles of Confederation, and the U.S. Constitution, providing the philosophical framework for the new American nation.

Important Battles of the American Revolution

• Battle of Great Meadows/Fort Necessity (July 3, 1754): The opening battle of the French and Indian War. A young George Washington, leading Virginia militia, constructed Fort Necessity. His forces were quickly overwhelmed by a larger French and Native American force, leading to his surrender. This defeat marked the beginning of a larger imperial conflict.

• Battles of Lexington and Concord (April 19, 1775): The first military engagements of the American Revolutionary War. British troops marched to Concord to seize colonial arms and ammunition and capture Patriot leaders John Hancock and Samuel Adams. Militiamen ('Minutemen') confronted the British at Lexington Green, where the 'shot heard 'round the world' was fired. The British then marched to Concord, where they were met by a larger militia force and suffered heavy casualties during their retreat back to Boston.

• Battle of Bunker Hill (June 17, 1775): Fought primarily on Breed's Hill, near Boston. Though a tactical victory for the British, who eventually took the hill after three assaults, they suffered heavy casualties. The Patriot forces, despite running out of ammunition (leading to the famous command 'Don't fire until you see the whites of their eyes'), inflicted significant losses on the British. It demonstrated that colonial militia could stand against professional British soldiers, boosting Patriot morale.

• Battle of Trenton (December 26, 1776): A crucial and surprising victory for the Continental Army led by George Washington. After crossing the Delaware River on Christmas night, Washington's forces launched a surprise attack on a Hessian (German mercenaries fighting for the British) garrison at Trenton, New Jersey. This victory significantly boosted Continental Army morale and re-energized the Patriot cause after a series of defeats, encouraging re-enlistments.

• Battle of Saratoga (September-October 1777): A decisive American victory comprising two battles fought in upstate New York. American forces, under Generals Horatio Gates and Benedict Arnold, decisively defeated and captured British General John Burgoyne's invasion force.

  • Significance: Widely considered the turning point of the American Revolution because it convinced France to officially enter the war as an ally of the United States. French financial, military, and naval aid proved indispensable to the American cause.

• Battle of Yorktown (September-October 1781): The decisive siege that effectively ended the major fighting of the American Revolution. A combined American and French force, under Washington and French General Rochambeau, trapped British General Lord Cornwallis's army at Yorktown, Virginia. The French navy, under Admiral de Grasse, blockaded the Chesapeake Bay, preventing British resupply or escape. Cornwallis surrendered, leading to the British government's decision to negotiate an end to the war.

• Battle of Guilford Courthouse (March 15, 1781): Fought in North Carolina during the Southern Campaign. British General Lord Cornwallis achieved a tactical victory over American forces led by General Nathanael Greene. However, the British suffered heavy casualties (over 25% of their force), weakening them significantly and forcing Cornwallis to abandon his campaign in North Carolina and move to Virginia, which ultimately led to Yorktown. A strategic American victory through attrition.

• Battle of King's Mountain (October 7, 1780): A pivotal Patriot victory in the Southern Campaign. A force of American militiamen ('Overmountain Men') ambushed and decisively defeated a Loyalist militia led by British Major Patrick Ferguson in South Carolina.

  • Significance: This battle boosted Patriot morale in the South and significantly crippled the Loyalist militia, forcing Cornwallis to delay his advance and contributing to the eventual British defeat in the Carolinas.

Timeline of European Populating North America

• Spain (Late 15th Century onward, especially early 16th):

  • When: Christopher Columbus's voyages began in 1492. Significant colonization efforts (Ponce de Leon in Florida, Hernán Cortés in Mexico, Coronado in the Southwest) began in the early 16th century (1500s).

  • What Happened: Spain was the first major European power to establish a vast empire in the Americas. They conquered the Aztec and Inca empires, established wealthy colonies based on gold, silver mining, and agriculture (using indigenous and later African slave labor), and set up missions to convert native populations. Settlements included St. Augustine (1565 - the oldest continually occupied European settlement in North America) and Santa Fe (1610).

• France (Early 17th Century onward):

  • When: Samuel de Champlain founded Quebec in 1608. French colonization efforts picked up in the early 17th century (1600s).

  • What Happened: Focused primarily on the St. Lawrence River valley, Great Lakes, and Mississippi River basin (New France and Louisiana). Their empire was largely based on the fur trade (beaver) and alliances with Native American tribes, with relatively few permanent settlers and a strong missionary presence (Jesuits). Lack of major precious metals meant slower, less intensive settlement compared to Spain.

• England (Early 17th Century onward):

  • When: Roanoke (1585, 1587 - failed), Jamestown (1607 - first permanent settlement). Widespread English colonization began in the early 17th century (1600s).

  • What Happened: Established 13 distinct colonies along the Atlantic coast, driven by a mix of economic opportunity (cash crops like tobacco) and religious freedom (Puritans, Quakers). Characterized by larger numbers of permanent settlers, establishment of self-governing institutions (e.g., House of Burgesses), and a focus on agriculture (family farms, plantations). Increasingly relied on enslaved African labor.

• Netherlands (Early 17th Century):

  • When: Henry Hudson explored the Hudson River region in 1609. Dutch colonization efforts established New Netherland (with New Amsterdam as its capital) in the early 17th century (1600s).

  • What Happened: The Dutch West India Company established a diverse, mercantilist fur-trading colony centered on what is now New York. They had a strong commercial focus but relatively few settlers. The colony was religiously tolerant and attracted various European nationalities. However, it was conquered by the English in 1664 and renamed New York, thereby ending significant Dutch presence as a colonizing power in North America, though Dutch cultural influence persisted.