AP U.S. GOVERNMENT & POLITICS NOTES

UNIT 1: Foundations of American Democracy

1.1 Ideals of Democracy

ESSENTIAL QUESTION: How are democratic ideals reflected in the Declaration of Independence and the U.S. Constitution?

Limited Government: Government restricted by law; heavily influenced by the Enlightenment.

• Natural Rights: Rights given by a creator that cannot be taken away (John Locke, Thomas Hobbes).

  • State of Nature: A hypothetical human condition without government.

    • Hobbes: Man is evil; government is necessary to prevent chaos.

    • Locke: People can live peacefully; government protects natural rights.

• Popular Sovereignty / Social Contract: Power to govern resides with the people, who grant some power to the government for protection (Jean-Jacques Rousseau). If the government violates the contract, the people can overthrow it.

• Republicanism: People elect representatives to make laws (Montesquieu).

• Separation of Powers: Power divided among three branches of government (Montesquieu).

Declaration of Independence:

• Written by Jefferson, Adams, Franklin, Sherman, Livingston.

• Enlightenment influences: Natural rights ("Life, Liberty, pursuit of Happiness"), social contract.

U.S. Constitution:

• Enlightenment influences: Separation of powers, checks and balances, republicanism.

• Created a representative republic (not a pure democracy).

1.2 Types of Democracy

ESSENTIAL QUESTION: How are models of representative democracy visible in U.S. institutions, policies, events, and debates?

1. Participatory Democracy: Broad citizen participation in politics.

   • Ex: Town meetings, initiatives, referendums.

2. Elite Democracy: Limited participation by a small, educated group of statespeople.

   • Ex: Electoral College, presidential appointment of judges.

3. Pluralist Democracy: Group-based activism by competing interest groups.

   • Ex: NAACP, state representation of interests.

Constitution reflects all three models:

• Elite: Elected representatives.

• Pluralist: Compromise among state interests.

• Participatory: Federalism (power shared with states).

Key Documents:

• Brutus 1 (Anti-Federalist): Favored keeping power with the states (participatory model).

• Federalist 10 (Madison): Argued a large republic would control factions through competition.

1.3 Government Power and Individual Rights

ESSENTIAL QUESTION: How are Federalist and Anti-Federalist views on central government and democracy reflected in America's foundational documents?

Federalists (Hamilton, Madison, Jay):

• Supported a stronger central government and Constitution ratification.

• Federalist 10: Warned against "mischief of factions." A large, diverse republic would force factions to compromise, protecting liberty.

Anti-Federalists (Henry, Mason):

• Wanted power to remain with the states; opposed Constitution ratification.

• Brutus 1: Argued a large republic couldn't represent all citizens; feared supremacy and necessary & proper clauses would make states obsolete.

1.4 Challenges of the Articles of Confederation

ESSENTIAL QUESTION: What is the relationship between key provisions of the Articles of Confederation and the debate over granting the federal government greater power formerly reserved to the states?

Articles of Confederation: First U.S. constitution; a "firm league of friendship" among states.

• Weaknesses:

  • Unicameral Congress (one branch).

  • No power to tax or regulate commerce.

  • No national army or currency.

  • Amendments required unanimous consent.

• Shays' Rebellion: Highlighted the weakness of the national government, prompting the Constitutional Convention.

1.5 Ratification of the U.S. Constitution

ESSENTIAL QUESTION: Explain the ongoing impact of political negotiation and compromise at the Constitutional Convention on the development of the constitutional system.

• Great Compromise (Connecticut Compromise): Created a bicameral legislature.

  • House of Representatives: Based on population (Virginia Plan).

  • Senate: Equal representation per state (New Jersey Plan).

• Three-Fifths Compromise: Slaves counted as 3/5 of a person for representation and taxation.

• Electoral College: Compromise on electing the president.

• Amendment Process (Article V): Allows for change, requiring supermajorities (2/3 to propose, 3/4 to ratify).

1.6 Principles of American Government

ESSENTIAL QUESTION: Explain the constitutional principles of separation of powers and "checks and balances."

• Separation of Powers: Power divided among three branches (Legislative, Executive, Judicial).

• Checks and Balances: Each branch can limit the power of the others.

  • Examples: Veto, impeachment, advice and consent, judicial review.

• Federalist 51: Justifies separation of powers and checks & balances to control abuse of power.

1.7 Relationship Between the States and Federal Government

ESSENTIAL QUESTION: How do the needs of society affect the allocation of power between national and state governments?

Federalism: Power shared between national and state governments.

• Exclusive Powers: Federal only (e.g., declare war).

• Concurrent Powers: Shared (e.g., tax).

• Reserved Powers (10th Amendment): State only (e.g., police, education).

Fiscal Federalism: Federal funding to states with conditions.

• Categorical Grants: Money for specific purposes with strict rules.

• Block Grants: Money for broad purposes with state discretion.

• Mandates: Federal orders states must follow (sometimes unfunded).

• Devolution: Shifting power from national to state/local governments.

1.8 Constitutional Interpretations of Federalism

ESSENTIAL QUESTION: How has a balance of power between national and state governments been interpreted over time?

Key Clauses:

• 10th Amendment: Powers not delegated to the federal government are reserved for the states.

• Commerce Clause (Art. I, Sec. 8): Congress can regulate interstate commerce.

• Necessary & Proper Clause (Elastic Clause): Congress can make laws necessary to execute its enumerated powers.

• Supremacy Clause (Art. VI): Federal law is supreme over state law.

• Full Faith & Credit Clause (Art. IV): States must respect the laws and rulings of other states.

1.9 Federalism in Action

ESSENTIAL QUESTION: How does the distribution of powers among three federal branches and between national and state governments impact policymaking?

• Allows states to be "laboratories of democracy."

• Examples:

  • Environmental Policy: States can uphold regulations (e.g., Paris Agreement) even if federal policy changes.

  • Marijuana Legalization: States legalize despite federal prohibition, with federal non-enforcement creating a patchwork system.

UNIT 2: Interactions Among Branches of Government

U.S. Constitution Overview

2.1 Congress: The Senate and the House of Representatives

ESSENTIAL QUESTION: What are the structures, powers, and functions of each house of Congress?

Congressional Powers:

• Enumerated: Listed in Article I, Sec. 8 (tax, coin money, declare war, etc.).

• Implied: From the Necessary & Proper Clause (e.g., draft, create a bank).

2.2 Congress: Structures, Powers, and Functions

ESSENTIAL QUESTION: How do the structures, powers, and functions of Congress affect the policymaking process?

Leadership:

• House: Speaker of the House (majority party), Majority/Minority Leaders and Whips.

• Senate: VP (presides, breaks ties), President Pro Tempore, Majority/Minority Leaders.

Committees: Where most legislative work is done.

• Standing: Permanent (e.g., Appropriations, Ways & Means).

• Joint: Members from both chambers.

• Select/Special: Temporary for specific issue.

• Conference: Reconcile House/Senate bill differences.

House Rules Committee: Controls debate schedule and rules in the House.
Senate Filibuster: Unlimited debate to delay/block a bill; can be ended by cloture (60 votes).

How a Bill Becomes a Law: Introduced → Committee → Floor Vote → Other Chamber → Conference → President (sign/veto/pocket veto).

2.3 Congressional Behavior

ESSENTIAL QUESTION: What powers affect how well Congress can get its job done?

• Divided Government / Gridlock: Opposing parties control different branches, slowing legislation.

• Gerrymandering: Drawing district lines to benefit one party (partisan) or racial group (racial).

• Models of Representation:

  • Delegate: Votes according to constituent wishes.

  • Trustee: Uses own judgment.

  • Politico: Hybrid of both.

2.4 Roles and Powers of the President

ESSENTIAL QUESTION: How can a president implement a political agenda?

Formal Powers (Article II): Veto, commander-in-chief, make treaties (with Senate approval), appoint officials (with Senate approval), grant pardons.

Informal Powers:

• Bargaining & Persuasion: Using the "bully pulpit" to influence Congress/public.

• Executive Orders: Directives with force of law (manage bureaucracy).

• Executive Agreements: Pacts with foreign leaders (no Senate approval needed).

• Signing Statements: Comments on how the president will interpret/enforce a law.

• Executive Privilege: Withholding information from other branches (limited).

2.5 Checks on the Presidency

ESSENTIAL QUESTION: How could the president's agenda contribute to confrontations with Congress?

Checks via Advice and Consent (Senate Approval):

• Treaties: Require 2/3 Senate approval.

• Appointments: Ambassadors, Cabinet secretaries, federal judges (including Supreme Court Justices).

• "Borking": Senate's vigorous rejection of a nominee.

Other Checks: Impeachment (House) and removal (Senate), congressional oversight, War Powers Resolution, judicial review.

2.6 Expansion of Presidential Power

ESSENTIAL QUESTION: How have presidents interpreted and explained their use of formal and informal powers?

• Federalist 70: Argued for a single, energetic executive accountable to the people.

• 22nd Amendment: Limits president to two terms (response to FDR's four terms).

• "Imperial Presidency": Concern over steadily growing presidential power, especially in foreign policy.

• War Powers Resolution (1973): Limits president's ability to commit troops without Congressional approval.

2.7 Presidential Communication

ESSENTIAL QUESTION: How has communication technology changed the president's relationship with the American people and other branches of government?

• Bully Pulpit: The president's unique platform to set the national agenda.

• State of the Union Address: Constitutionally required speech to Congress.

• Evolution: Fireside chats (radio) → Televised press conferences (JFK) → Social media (Trump) has amplified and sped up direct communication with the public.

2.8 The Judicial Branch

ESSENTIAL QUESTION: How does the principle of judicial review check the power of the other branches and state government?

Structure:

• Supreme Court: Highest court; appellate and limited original jurisdiction.

• Courts of Appeals (12 Circuits): Appellate jurisdiction only.

• District Courts (94): Original jurisdiction for federal cases.

Key Concepts:

• Judicial Review: Power to declare laws/actions unconstitutional (established in Marbury v. Madison).

• Federalist 78: Argued for judicial independence through lifetime tenure, allowing judges to guard the Constitution without political pressure.

2.9 The Legitimacy of the Judicial Branch

ESSENTIAL QUESTION: Explain how the exercise of judicial review in conjunction with life tenure can lead to debates about the legitimacy of the Supreme Court's power.

• Life Tenure: Insulates judges from politics but raises concerns about accountability and an "imperial judiciary."

• Judicial Philosophy:

  • Loose Constructionism: Constitution is a living document (adapts over time).

  • Strict Constructionism: Interpret Constitution based on original intent.

• Ideological Makeup: The Court's rulings often reflect the prevailing ideology of its members (e.g., liberal Warren Court vs. conservative Rehnquist Court).

2.10 & 2.11 The Supreme Court in Action & How It Can Be Checked

ESSENTIAL QUESTION: Explain how the exercise of judicial review in conjunction with life tenure can lead to debate about the legitimacy of the Supreme Court's power.

• Judicial Activism: Court shapes public policy by overturning laws/precedents (e.g., Brown v. Board).

• Judicial Restraint: Court defers to elected branches, only striking down clearly unconstitutional laws.

Checks on the Judiciary:

• Congress: Can propose constitutional amendments, change court jurisdiction, impeach judges.

• President: Appoints judges (with Senate consent), can refuse to enforce decisions.

• Public Opinion: Can influence Court's legitimacy and compliance with rulings.

2.12 The Federal Bureaucracy

ESSENTIAL QUESTION: How does the bureaucracy carry out the responsibilities of the federal government?

Structure:

1. Cabinet Departments (15 major executive departments).

2. Independent Executive Agencies (e.g., NASA, EPA).

3. Independent Regulatory Commissions (e.g., FCC, SEC).

4. Government Corporations (e.g., USPS, Amtrak).

Roles: Implement laws, write/enforce regulations, administer programs.
Iron Triangle: Relationship between congressional committees, bureaucratic agencies, and interest groups.
Spoils System → Merit System: Pendleton Act (1883) established civil service exams.

2.13 Discretionary and Rule-Making Authority

ESSENTIAL QUESTION: How does the federal bureaucracy use delegated discretionary authority to make and implement rules?

• Delegated Discretionary Authority: Congress grants power to agencies to implement broad laws (e.g., EPA enforces Clean Air Act).

• Rule-Making Authority: Power of agencies to create specific regulations that have the force of law.

• Examples: IRS (tax code), EPA (environmental rules), SEC (financial market regulations).

UNIT 3: Civil Liberties and Civil Rights

3.1 The Bill of Rights

ESSENTIAL QUESTION: How does the U.S. Constitution protect individual liberties and rights?

• First 10 Amendments, protecting civil liberties (freedoms from government interference).

• Added to satisfy Anti-Federalist concerns.

3.2 The First Amendment: Freedom of Religion

ESSENTIAL QUESTION: Explain the extent to which the Supreme Court's interpretation of the First Amendment reflects a commitment to individual liberty.

• Establishment Clause: Government cannot establish an official religion (Engel v. Vitale - no school prayer).

• Free Exercise Clause: Government cannot prohibit religious practice (Wisconsin v. Yoder - Amish education).

3.3 The First Amendment: Freedom of Speech

ESSENTIAL QUESTION: Explain the extent to which the Supreme Court's interpretation of the First Amendment reflects a commitment to individual liberty.

• Not Absolute: Can be limited if it incites violence, is defamatory, obscene, or creates a clear and present danger (Schenck v. US).

• Symbolic Speech is protected (Tinker v. Des Moines - armbands).

• Time, Place, Manner Restrictions are allowed if content-neutral.

3.4 The First Amendment: Freedom of the Press

ESSENTIAL QUESTION: Explain the extent to which the Supreme Court's interpretation of the First Amendment reflects a commitment to individual liberty.

• Prior Restraint (censorship before publication) is heavily disfavored (NY Times v. US - Pentagon Papers).

• The press acts as a watchdog on government.

3.5 The Second Amendment: The Right to Bear Arms

ESSENTIAL QUESTION: Explain the extent to which the Supreme Court's interpretation of the Second Amendment reflects a commitment to individual liberty.

• District of Columbia v. Heller: Individuals have a right to possess firearms for self-defense.

• McDonald v. Chicago: Incorporated the 2nd Amendment to the states via the 14th Amendment.

3.6 Individual Freedom v. Public Safety

ESSENTIAL QUESTION: Explain how the Supreme Court has attempted to balance claims of individual freedom with laws and enforcement procedures that promote public order and safety.

• 4th Amendment: Protects against unreasonable searches/seizures; exclusionary rule.

• 8th Amendment: Prohibits cruel/unusual punishment; debate over death penalty (Furman v. Georgia, Gregg v. Georgia).

• Balancing Test: Courts weigh individual rights against government's interest in safety (e.g., USA PATRIOT Act).

3.7 Selective Incorporation

ESSENTIAL QUESTION: Explain the implications of the doctrine of selective incorporation.

• Process of applying the Bill of Rights to the states through the 14th Amendment's Due Process Clause.

• Done case-by-case (selectively), not all at once (e.g., Gitlow v. NY - speech; McDonald - guns).

3.8 Due Process and the Rights of the Accused

ESSENTIAL QUESTION: Explain the extent to which the states are limited by the due process clause from infringing upon individual rights.

• 4th Amendment: Exclusionary rule (Mapp v. Ohio).

• 5th Amendment: Right against self-incrimination; Miranda Rights (Miranda v. Arizona).

• 6th Amendment: Right to counsel (Gideon v. Wainwright).

3.9 Due Process and the Right to Privacy

ESSENTIAL QUESTION: Explain the extent to which states are limited by the due process clause from infringing upon individual rights.

• Right to Privacy: Implied from 1st, 3rd, 4th, 5th, 9th, & 14th Amendments.

• Roe v. Wade (1973): Established a constitutional right to abortion (based on privacy). (Note: Overturned by Dobbs v. Jackson in 2022).

• Pierce v. Society of Sisters: Right to direct child's education.

3.10-3.12 Social Movements and Equal Protection

ESSENTIAL QUESTION: Explain how constitutional provisions have supported and motivated social movements.

• Civil Rights: Protections against discrimination based on race, gender, etc. (14th Amendment Equal Protection Clause).

• Civil Rights Movement: Brown v. Board (overturned "separate but equal"), Civil Rights Act (1964), Voting Rights Act (1965).

• Women's Rights Movement: 19th Amendment (suffrage), Title IX (education), Equal Rights Amendment (proposed).

• Affirmative Action: Policies to redress past discrimination. Controversial; generally cannot use strict racial quotas (Regents v. Bakke).

UNIT 4: American Political Ideologies and Beliefs

4.1 American Attitudes About Government and Politics

ESSENTIAL QUESTION: What is the relationship between the core beliefs of U.S. citizens and their attitudes about the role of the government?

Core American Values:

1. Individualism

2. Equality of Opportunity

3. Free Enterprise

4. Rule of Law

5. Limited Government

Ideological Spectrum:

• Conservative: Favors traditional social structures, limited government in economy, more government in social order.

• Liberal: Favors social justice, government intervention in economy, less government in social/personal life.

• Libertarian: Favors minimal government in both economic and social spheres.

4.2-4.4 Political Socialization

ESSENTIAL QUESTION: How do cultural factors, life cycle, and events influence political attitudes?

Agents of Socialization: Family (primary), school, peers, media, religion.
Influences on Ideology:

• Generational Effects: Historical context of one's birth cohort (e.g., Great Depression, 9/11).

• Life Cycle Effects: Changes in views as one ages (e.g., marriage, homeownership).

• Political Events: Major events (wars, scandals) can reshape political attitudes.

4.5-4.6 Measuring Public Opinion

ESSENTIAL QUESTION: What are the elements of a scientific poll? How can you determine the quality of public opinion data?

Scientific Poll Requirements:

• Random, representative sample.

• Unbiased question wording.

• Low sampling error (±3% is good).

• Types: Opinion, benchmark, tracking, exit polls.

Challenges: Non-response bias, social desirability bias, question order effects.

4.7-4.10 Ideologies of Political Parties and Policies

ESSENTIAL QUESTION: How have the ideologies of the two major parties shaped policy debate?

• Democratic Party: Center-left. Generally supports Keynesian economics, social safety nets, environmental regulation, and progressive social policies.

• Republican Party (GOP): Center-right. Generally supports supply-side economics, free markets, traditional social values, and a strong national defense.

• Economic Policy: Fiscal policy (taxing/spending) vs. Monetary policy (Federal Reserve controls money supply/interest rates).

UNIT 5: Political Participation

5.1 Voting Rights and Models of Voting Behavior

ESSENTIAL QUESTION: Describe the voting rights protections in the Constitution and in legislation.

Expansion of Suffrage:

• 15th Amendment (race), 17th (direct election of senators), 19th (gender), 24th (no poll tax), 26th (age 18).

Voting Behavior Models:

• Rational-Choice: Vote based on self-interest after studying issues.

• Retrospective: Vote based on candidate's past performance.

• Prospective: Vote based on predictions for future performance.

• Party-Line: Vote straight ticket for one party.

5.2 Voter Turnout

ESSENTIAL QUESTION: Explain the roles that individual choice and state laws play in voter turnout in elections.

Factors Influencing Turnout:

• Demographics: Age (older > younger), education, income.

• State Laws: Registration requirements, voter ID laws, mail-in voting.

• Political Efficacy: Belief that one's vote matters.

• Election Type: Higher in presidential years than midterms.

5.3-5.5 Political Parties

ESSENTIAL QUESTION: Explain the function and impact of political parties.

Functions: Mobilize voters, recruit candidates, provide a party platform, simplify choices for voters.
Linkage Institution: Connects citizens to government.
Two-Party System: Reinforced by winner-take-all elections, making it difficult for third parties to succeed, though they can influence the major parties' platforms.

5.6-5.7 Interest Groups

ESSENTIAL QUESTION: Explain the benefit and potential problems of interest-group influence on elections and policymaking.

Functions: Educate public/officials, lobby, draft legislation, mobilize members.
Iron Triangle: Relationship between interest groups, congressional committees, and bureaucratic agencies.
Influence Inequality: Well-funded groups have greater access.
Free Rider Problem: People benefit from an interest group's work without joining.

5.8-5.9 Elections

ESSENTIAL QUESTION: Explain how the different processes work in U.S. elections.

• Primaries/Caucuses: How parties choose nominees (open vs. closed primaries).

• Electoral College: Winner-take-all system in most states; can produce a president who loses the popular vote.

• Congressional Elections: Held every 2 years; strong incumbency advantage (name recognition, fundraising, gerrymandered safe seats).

• Midterm Elections: Often a referendum on the sitting president's party.

5.10-5.11 Campaign Finance

ESSENTIAL QUESTION: Explain how campaign organization and finance affect the election process.

• Federal Election Commission (FEC): Regulates campaign finance.

• Buckley v. Valeo: Spending money on campaigns = free speech.

• Citizens United v. FEC: Corporations/unions can spend unlimited independent expenditures.

• PACs & Super PACs: Raise money to influence elections. Super PACs can raise/spend unlimited funds but cannot coordinate directly with candidates.

5.12-5.13 The Media

ESSENTIAL QUESTION: Explain the media's role as a linkage institution and how it influences political institutions.

Roles: Watchdog, agenda-setter, gatekeeper, scorekeeper (horse-race journalism).
Evolution: Print → radio → TV → digital/social media.
Impact: Social media increases speed and fragmentation of news, facilitates activism (weak vs. strong ties), and contributes to echo chambers through algorithmic bias.
Media Bias: Can stem from journalist ideology, corporate ownership, or consumer demand.