CHAPTER 1-7

Chapter 1: Introduction to the Human Body

• Anatomy vs. Physiology

• Anatomy: Study of body structure.

• Physiology: Study of body function.

• Levels of Organization

• Atoms → Molecules → Cells → Tissues → Organs → Organ Systems → Human Organism.

• Major Organ Systems

• Integumentary system: Protects body.

• Skeletal system: Provides structure.

• Muscular system: Enables movement.

• Nervous system: Controls body functions.

• Endocrine system: Hormonal regulation.

• Circulatory system: Transports blood.

• Lymphatic system: Defends against infection.

• Immune system: Protects against disease.

• Respiratory system: Exchanges gases.

• Digestive system: Processes food.

• Urinary system: Eliminates waste.

• Reproductive system: Produces offspring.

• Homeostasis

• The body's ability to maintain a stable internal environment.

• Anatomical Position & Body Planes

• Anatomical Position: Standing erect, face forward, arms at sides, palms and toes forward.

• Body Planes:

  • Sagittal: Divides body into left and right.
  • Frontal: Divides body into anterior (front) and posterior (back).
  • Transverse: Divides body into upper (superior) and lower (inferior).

• Body Cavities

• Dorsal Cavity: Contains cranial and spinal cavities.

• Ventral Cavity: Contains thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities.

• Quadrants & Regions

• Abdominopelvic cavity divided into 4 quadrants and 9 regions.

Chapter 2: Basic Chemistry

• Matter & Atoms

• Matter: Anything with mass and volume.

• States of matter: Solid, Liquid, Gas.

• Components of atoms:

  • Protons: Positive charge (+).
  • Neutrons: No charge (0).
  • Electrons: Negative charge (-).

• Elements in the Body

• Major elements constitute 96% of the human body:

  • Oxygen: 65%
  • Carbon: 18.5%
  • Hydrogen: 9.5%
  • Nitrogen: 3.2%

• Chemical Bonds

• Ionic Bonds: Transfer of electrons.

• Covalent Bonds: Sharing of electrons.

• Hydrogen Bonds: Weak attraction between molecules.

• Water: Essential for Life

• Functions: Universal solvent, temperature regulator, lubricant, engages in chemical reactions, protective medium.

• Acids, Bases, and pH

• Acid: Substance that releases H+.

• Base: Substance that removes H+.

• pH Scale: Range from 0 to 14; 7 is neutral,

• Energy & ATP

• ATP: Energy currency of the cell.

• Types of energy: Mechanical, Chemical, Electrical, Radiant, Thermal, Nuclear.

Chapter 3: Cells

• Structure of a Cell

• Cell membrane: Regulates entry and exit of substances.

• Nucleus: Control center that contains DNA.

• Cytoplasm: Gel-like fluid that holds organelles.

• Organelles & Their Functions

• Mitochondria: ATP production (powerhouse of the cell).

• Ribosomes: Synthesis of proteins (protein factories).

• Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER): Transport system for materials.

  • Rough ER: Studded with ribosomes, synthesizes proteins.
  • Smooth ER: Synthesizes lipids.

• Golgi Apparatus: Modifies, sorts, and packages proteins.

• Lysosomes: Contains enzymes for cellular digestion.

• Cell Transport

• Passive Transport: Does not require energy (e.g., Diffusion, Osmosis, Facilitated Diffusion).

• Active Transport: Requires ATP to move substances against concentration gradient (e.g., Pumps, Endocytosis, Exocytosis).

• Cell Cycle & Division

• Mitosis: Division of somatic cells (resulting in two identical cells).

• Meiosis: Division of reproductive cells (producing gametes).

• Cell Differentiation & Growth

• Cells differentiate to perform specialized functions.

• Apoptosis: Programmed cell death, a vital process for development and homeostasis.

Chapter 4: Cell Metabolism

• Metabolism

• Anabolism: Building complex molecules (energy-requiring).

• Catabolism: Breaking down molecules for energy (energy-releasing).

• Carbohydrate Metabolism

• Glucose breakdown:

  • Anaerobic metabolism (without oxygen): Glycolysis → Produces Lactic Acid.
  • Aerobic metabolism (with oxygen): Complete breakdown into CO₂, water, and ATP.

• Lipid Metabolism

• Triglycerides: Serve as a major form of energy storage.

• Cholesterol and Lipoproteins: Transport lipids in bloodstream.

• Protein Metabolism

• Proteins are necessary for structure, enzymes, and hormones.

• Excess nitrogen is converted into urea for excretion by kidneys.

• DNA & RNA in Protein Synthesis

• DNA: Serves as the genetic blueprint.

• mRNA: Carries genetic code from DNA to ribosomes.

• tRNA: Brings amino acids to ribosomes during protein synthesis.

• Ribosomes: Sites of protein assembly.

Chapter 6: Tissues and Membranes

• Types of Tissues:

1. Epithelial: Covers body surfaces.
2. Connective: Supports and connects body parts.
3. Muscle: Contracts to produce movement.
4. Nervous: Transmits impulses for communication.

• Epithelial Tissue:

• Can be classified into simple (single layer) vs. stratified (multiple layers).

• Glandular Epithelium:

  • Endocrine glands: Secrete hormones into the bloodstream.
  • Exocrine glands: Secrete substances outside the body or into the digestive tract.

• Connective Tissue:

• Includes types such as bone, blood, and cartilage.

• Muscle Tissue:

• Skeletal Muscle: Voluntary movement.

• Smooth Muscle: Involuntary movement (found in organs).

• Cardiac Muscle: Involuntary movement (heart muscle).

• Nervous Tissue:

• Neurons: Specialized cells that transmit signals.

• Neuroglia: Support and protect neurons.

• Tissue Repair:

• Regeneration: Replacement of damaged tissue with the same cell type.

• Fibrosis: Replacement of damaged tissue with scar tissue.

• Membranes:

• Epithelial Membranes:

  • Cutaneous: Skin.
  • Mucous: Lines body cavities that open to the outside.
  • Serous: Lines closed body cavities.

• Connective Membranes:

  • Synovial Membranes: Line joint cavities.

Chapter 7: Integumentary System & Body Temperature

• Functions of the Skin:

• Provides protection against environmental hazards.

• Senses environmental stimuli.

• Regulates body temperature.

• Synthesizes vitamin D.

• Skin Layers:

• Epidermis: Outermost layer containing melanocytes (pigment cells).

• Dermis: Contains blood vessels, nerve endings, and connective tissue.

• Subcutaneous layer (hypodermis): Composed of adipose (fat) tissue for insulation and energy storage.

• Accessory Structures:

• Hair: Provides protection and insulation.

• Nails: Composed of keratinized cells for protection.

• Glands:

  • Sebaceous Glands: Produce oil (sebum) to lubricate skin.
  • Sweat Glands:
  • Apocrine glands: Produce odor (found in armpits).
  • Eccrine glands: Produce sweat for cooling the body.

• Body Temperature Regulation:

• Heat Loss: Mechanisms include radiation, conduction, convection, and evaporation.

• Heat Production: Results from metabolism and muscle activity.

• Burns & Skin Conditions:

• First-degree burns: Characterized by redness and minor pain.

• Second-degree burns: Blisters and more severe pain.

• Third-degree burns: Cause deep tissue damage.

• Rule of Nines: A method for estimating the extent of burns on the body.