Key term/event

Definition (Who, What, When, Where…)

Significance (Why this term matters)

khagan

Title of the supreme ruler of the Mongol tribes

This is significant because the khagan led the vast Mongol empire and was the head of their military and governance. Chinggis Khan, Ogedai and Kubilai Khan were all khagans, and they led to the massive expansion of the empire which had consequent results on the rest of the world such as the diffusion of cultures, growth in economies, etc. 

kuriltai

Meeting of all Mongol chieftains at which the supreme ruler of all tribes was selected. 

This is significant because it allowed for the khagans, or supreme rulers of the Mongol empire, such as Chinggis Khan and Obgedai, to be selected after the previous khagan passed away. 

Chinggis Khan

First khagan of the Mongol empire, led attacks into China and Islamic Empire

He led to the expansion of the Mongol Empire as the first Khagan. He made the Mongol army into the most disciplined, organized, well-trained and efficient soldiers of the world. Under him, the Mongols advanced into China and the Islamic World. He also promoted cultural exchange through his example of religious and cultural tolerance and cultivation in his empire. In addition, his conquests brought much peace and advancement in Asia, where artisan production and scholarship flourished, and secure trade routes were created.  

Mongol Khanates

Four regional Mongol kingdoms that arose following the death of Chinggis Khan 

After Chinggis Khan’s death, the Mongol Empire was divided into the four great khanates. One of them was the Golden Horde, which led the Mongol conquest into the West, most prominently, Russia.  

Golden Horde

One of the four subdivisions of the Mongol empire after Chinggis Khan’s death, originally ruled by his grandson Batu; territory covered much of what is today south central Russia 

The Golden Horde led the Mongol invasion into the West and assault on Russia. 

Prester John

In legends popular from 12th to 17th century, a mythical Christian monarch whose kingdom was cut off from Europe by Muslim conquests; Chinggis Khan was originally believed to be this mythical ruler.

The Europeans believed that the Mongols were not an actual threat, but instead led by a Christian monarch who would help them fight the Muslims. For this reason, the rulers of Europe were slow to realize the magnitude of the threat the Mongols posed to western Christendom. 

Kubilai Khan

Grandson of Chinggis Khan; commander of Mongol forces responsible for conquest of China; became khagan in 1260; established Sinicized Mongol Yuan dynasty in China in 1271. 

Kubilai Khan advanced into China and led campaigns against the Song, and played a pivotal role in Chinese history for the next half century. He changed the name of his Mongol regime to the Yuan, the sinicized Mongol Chinese dynasty. Kubilai Khan was fascinated by Chinese civilization and surrounded himself with Chinese advisors and culture. He did not reestablish the civil service exam, continuing to influence the social gentry class. During the Yuan era, a new

Marco Polo

Marco Polo was a Venetian explorer known for the book The Travels of Marco Polo, which describes his voyage to and experiences in Asia. Polo traveled extensively with his family, journeying from Europe to Asia from 1271 to 1295 and remaining in China for 17 of those years.

Marco Polo was known for his accounts of Kubilai Khan’s court and empire, where Polo lived and served as an administrator for 17 years, which was perhaps the most famous travel account written by a European. He accepted fantastic tales of grotesque and strange customs, and may have taken parts of his account from other sources. However, his descriptions of the palaces, cities, and wealth of the Kubilai’s empire enhanced European interest in Asia and helped to inspire efforts by navigators, such as Columbus, to find a sea route to these fabled lands. 

Samarkand

Samarkand was the capital city of Timur i-Lang’s empire in Uzbekistan. 

Samarkand was the root of Timur i-Lang’s rise to power and the capital city of his short-lasting empire. During his start of expansion, his armies moved out from his base at Samarkand to conquests in Persia, the Fertile Crescent, India and southern Russia. 

caravanserais

A roadside inn where travelers (caravaners) could rest and recover from the day's journey.

The Mongols helped to redevelop trade routes through Eurasia, such as the Silk Route, through investing in better trade route infrastructure, such as caravanserais, and enforcing strong security through the use of policing.  

Yuan Dynasty

Chinese dynasty created by Mongol Khanan Kubilai Khan in 1271.

In the Yuan Dynasty, Kubilai Khan introduced vast aspects of Chinese culture into his empire, but also influenced the existing culture of China through his limitations on the scholar-elite’s power, establishment of a new social structure, and influence on gender roles. 

White Lotus Society

Secret religious society dedicated to overthrow of Yuan dynasty in China; typical of peasant resistance to Mongol rule 

The White Lotus society helped to overthrow the Yuan Dynasty, re-establishing Chinese independence. It began as a simple peasant rebellion, but grew in numbers and power until it was able to pose a serious threat to the government. 

Ming Dynasty

Succeeded Mongol Yuan dynasty in China in 1368; lasted until 1644; initially mounted huge trade expeditions to southern Asia and elsewhere, but later concentrated efforts on internal development within China 

Under the Ming Dynasty, China briefly became the dominant power in maritime trade and expeditions, and expanded their trade connections with the West. The notable and influential expeditions of Zheng He across the Indian Ocean also took place during this dynasty.

Timur-i Lang

Also known as Tamerlane; leader of Turkic nomads; beginning in 1360s from base at Samarkand, launched series of attacks in Persia, the Fertile Crescent, India, and southern Russia; empire disintegrated after his death in 1405.  

Timur-i Lang was a ruthless conqueror and was indifferent to human suffering, completely destroying many civilizations in India, Persia, the Mediterranean and Russia. However, his rule was as short and insignificant as it was violent.  

manorialism

System that described economic and political relations between landlords and their peasant laborers during the Middle Ages; involved a hierarchy during the Middle Ages; involved a hierarchy of reciprocal obligations that exchanged labor or rents for access to land

Manorialism was the first economic and political organization of Europe during the middle ages, and was a system of economic and political relations between landlords and their peasant laborers. It ensured that all members of society were fulfilling their roles and receiving sufficient things in exchange in order to maintain a stable society. Serfs receive protection from landlords in return forgiving them their produced crops and goods. However, Serfs had many difficulties of life under manorialism due to the difficulties of agriculture at the time and their difficult obligations to turn over high numbers of produced goods to landowners.

serfs

Peasant agricultural laborers within the manorial system of the Middle Ages

Serfs were at the bottom of the manorialism and feudalism systems, who gave landowners food in exchange for protection. While they were “free”, they were mostly unable to leave their land. Later on in the Middle Ages when they began to experience economic growth, Serfs were able to gain greater independence as they were moved to new lands that were previously not used for agriculture. 

three-field

system

System of agricultural cultivation by 9th century in western Europe; included one-third in spring grains; one-third fallow

The three-field system, along with the moldboard, allowed for higher agricultural productivity during the Middle Ages, improving life conditions for Serfs and economic conditions as well. However, as nobles sought higher standards of living, they pressed the serfs to pay higher rents and taxes, leading to a long-lived series of peasant-landlord battles until the 19th century. But, on the whole, while the economy and state of living improved in Europe, the lives of western peasants also improved between 900 and 1300. 

Holy Roman

Emperors

Emperors in northern Italy and Germany following split of Charlemagne’s empire, claimed title of emperor c. 10th century; failed to develop centralized monarchy in Germany

The Holy Roman Emperors merged Chrisitan and Classical claims to assert their authority. However, their rule relied too much on imperial claims and failed to build a solid monarchy from regional foundations. This allowed for the emergence of more regional authorities; in Italy, local lords mostly ruled independently, and in Germany many vibrant city states emerged.

Magna Carta

The Great Charter issued by King John of England in 1215; confirmed feudal rights against monarchical claims; represented the principle of mutual limits and obligations between rulers and feudal aristocracy. 

The Magna Carta confirmed feudal rights against monarchical claims, giving feudal lords more control over the central government.  It showed how feudalism could generate claims of rights against the power of a king. It is also one of the three most important documents of history. It paved the way for the use of political checks on the government. 

feudalism

• Chain of social relationships and dependencies 

• Social organization of Europe during the Middle Ages 

parliaments

Bodies representing privileged groups; institutionalized feudal principles that rulers should consult with their vassals; found in England, Spain, Germany, and France 

As with the Magna Carta, the parliament institutionalized the feudal principles that monarchs must consult with their lower lords. Parliaments gained the right to rule on any proposed changes in taxation, giving them the power to also advise the crown on other policy issues. This establishment continued to decentralize power as it gave more authority to the feudal nobles and church in government. 

three estates

The three social groups considered most powerful in Western countries: church, nobles, and urban leaders

The three estates gained authority in the government through the establishment of the parliament, further decentralizing the monarch's power. With this creation of representative institutions, Western feudal monarchy produced the beginnings of a distinctive political tradition of checks and balances. 

gothic

An architectural style that developed during the Middle Ages in western Europe; featured pointed arches and flying buttresses as external supports on main walls 

This was the main new architectural style produced by Europe during the middle ages. Gothic architectures created grand churches and cathedrals still seen today. It also built on growing technical skills and deep popular devotion, expressed in money and labor needed to build these huge monuments. Most importantly, the originality of this style reflected the growing Western ability to find new suitable means of expression, and later on, showed the ongoing power of medieval models. 

Hanseatic

League

An organization of cities in northern Germany and southern Scandinavia for the purpose of establishing a commercial alliance. 

The establishment of the Hanseatic League showed the growth of trade through commercial alliances. This allowed for the organization of commercial transactions throughout much of western Europe. 

capitalism

Economic system based on profit-seeking, private ownership, and investment 

The growth of trade and baking in the Middle Ages served as the origin of capitalism. Italian and German bankers and merchants were very capitalistic in their willingness to invest in trading ventures with the expectation of profit. In many cities, groups of powerful merchants banded together to invest in international trade, each buying shares in ventures and profiting or losing accordingly. Individual merchants could amass and lose great fortunes, showing the opportunities and risks of new forms of trade. 

guilds

Sworn associations of people in the same business or craft in a single city; stressed security and mutual control; limited membership, regulated apprenticeship, guaranteed good workmanship, often established franchise within cities 

The dominant economic ethic stressed group protection which led to the creation of Guilds. Guilds gave merchants and artisans greater independence from the state, and stressed security and mutual control. It also worked to counteract capitalism, ensuring that no one member could monopolize all the profits. They had strict regulations and limitations to ensure no members had more wealth than others. They also discouraged new methods because security and equality, rather than maximum individual profit, were the goals. Guilds also played important roles in politics and society for it gave their members recognized status and often a voice in city government. 

banking houses

Merchanting banks used to facilitate the long-distance exchange of money and goods 

The rise of banks in the Middle Ages showcased their international economic growth and increase of more specialized manufacturing and commercial activities. It was also a result of the increase of use of money. Large trading and banking operations were highly capitalistic, and concerned about making high personal profits. 

credit

The ability of a customer to obtain goods or services before payment, based on the trust that payment will be made in the future.

The use of credit helped to expand commercial activities in trade by providing a synonymous system of currency used by international traders. 

Black Death

Plague that struck Europe in 14th century; significantly reduced Europe’s population; affected social structure

The Black Death was another detrimental contributor to the decline of Europe during the middle ages. It spread from Asia and the Middle East due to trade, and completely devastated their civilization, causing significant reduction to their population.

Indians

Misnomer created by Columbus referring to indigenous peoples of New World; implies social and ethnic commonality among native Americans that did not exist still used to apply to Native Americans 

When Columbus reached the Americas, he thought that he had reached the Indies, which was the start of this misleading label. This represents how European explorers were not initially intending to reach the Americas, but rather find a more efficient trade route to the lucrative Indies. This term is also misleading because it implies a common identity among the peoples of the Americas that did not exist until after the arrival of the Europeans. 

Tenochtitlan

Founded c. 1325 on marshy island in Lake Texcoco; became center of Aztec power; joined with Tlacopan and Texcoco in 1434 to form a triple alliance that controlled most of the central plateau of Mesoamerica. 

Tenochtitlan was the capital of the great Aztec empire and was built on chinampas, a bed of aquatic weeds and mud built above a lake. It served as a secure base of the Aztecs and was able to create an alliance with two-other city states that controlled much of the central plateau, gaining land as they rose to power. Tenochtitlan also had great temples that were dedicated to their main gods, and used for rituals like human sacrifices.

Mexica

The name that the Aztecs called themselves

The Mexica, or the Aztecs, were one of the most powerful and influential empires in the Americas. They rose to power after the fall of the Toltec empire in the central valley near Lake Texcoco. The Aztec empire heavily relied on tributes to improve their economy which were given to them by the subjected people they conquered. Human sacrifices were also extremely prominent in their culture which the Aztecs expanded for both political and religious reasons, most prominently of which to cause fear onto their subjects. The Aztec rulers manipulated this into means of political terror, which helped build their political power. Their economy was mainly agricultural, built upon their use of chinampas. These artificial floating islands allowed them to farm above a lake, and had a very high yield, however due to flooding it was impossible to continue for long periods of time. The Aztecs also had prominent market places where a variety of goods were exchanged and, like the great market of Tlatelolco which was run by a special merchant class, or pochteca. 

chinampas

Beds of aquatic weeds, mud, and earth placed in frames made of cane and rooted in lakes to create “floating islands”; system of irrigated agriculture utilized by Aztecs 

The chinampas were artificial floating islands that allowed for farming in the water, and for water to reach all plants easily, which allowed for the economy of the Aztecs to prosper. More than 20,00 acres of chinampas were created in the empire and the yield from chinampa agriculture was very high, allowing for four corn crops a year. However, rise in lake levels made it impossible to continue for a period of time

calpulli

Clans in Aztec society, later expanded to include residential groups that distributed lands and provided labor and warriors

During their wanderings, the Aztecs were divided into seven calpulli, or clans, a form of organization that they later expanded and adapted to their imperial position. Afterwards, the calpulli were no longer only kinship groups but also residential groupings, which included neighbors, allies, and dependants. Much of Aztec local life was based on the calpulli, which performed important functions such as distributing land to heads of households, organizing labor gangs, and military units during times of war. In the origins of their society, every person, noble and commoner belonged to a calpulli but as Aztec power increased, other forms of social stratification emerged. 

Pachacuti

Ruler of Inca society from 1438 to 1471; launched a series of military campaigns that gave Incas control of the region from Cuzco to the shores of Lake Titicaca 

Pachachuti was the ruler of the incan empire and launched a series of military alliances and campaigns that brought them control of the whole area from Cuzco to the shores of Lake Titicaca. 

ayllus

Households in Andean societies that recognized some form of kinship; traced descent from some common, sometimes mythical ancestor  

The ayllus were important because they provided order and structure to the Incan societies through the establishment of self-sustaining social units where a family provided and was dependent on each of the members. This discouraged chaos and disorder in the households of Andean societies. 

split inheritance

Inca practice of descent; all titles and political power went to successor, but wealth and land remained in hands of male descendants for support of cult of dead Inca’s mummy 

The royal split inheritance meant that all political power and titles of the ruler went to his successor but all his palaces, wealth, land and possessions remained in the hands of his descendants. Therefore, in order to ensure his own cult and place for eternity, each Inca needed to secure land and wealth, which came as part of new conquests. And in effect, the greater the number of past rulers, the greater number of royal courts and the greater the demand for labor, lands and tribute -> creating a self-perpetuating need for expansion.

mita

Labor extracted for lands assigned to the state and the religion; all communities were expected to contribute; an essential aspect of Inca imperial control 

Mitas were labor turns where communities took turns working on state and church lands or building projects or in mining. These were an essential aspect of Inca control. 

yanas

A class of people within Inca society removed from their ayllus to serve permanently as servants, artisans, or workers for the Inca or the Inca nobility 

Yanas were a class of people in the Incan social structure who were below the peasants, and were removed from their ayllus and served permanently as servants, artisans, or workers for the Inca or the nobility. 

quipu

System of knotted strings utilized by the Incas in place of a writing system could contain numerical and other types of information for censuses and financial records

The quipu was a system of knotted strings to record numerical and perhaps other information. It worked like an abacus, and with it the Incas took censuses and kept financial records. The Incas' existence of so many traits associated with civilization in the Old World combined with the absence of a system of writing among the Incas illustrates the variations of human development and the dangers of becoming too attached to certain cultural characteristics or features in defining civilizations. 

Mississippian culture

Native American civilization that flourished in what is now the Midwestern, Eastern, and Southeastern United States from approximately 800 CE to 1600 CE, varying regionally. It was known for building large, earthen platform mounds, and often other shaped mounds as well

The most significant developments of Mississippian culture were the adoption of large-scale, intensive maize agriculture which showed to be a continuously fundamental part of the economies of native american states. 

Renaissance

Cultural and political movement in western Europe; began in Italy c. 1400; rested on urban vitality and expanding commerce; featured a literature and art with distinctly more secular priorities than those of the Middle Ages

The Renaissance, a revival of styles and themes from the classical era, was a significant cultural movement that changed the course of European society through its impacts on their arts, architecture, cultural values, and more. It led to a change in art by moving the subject matter of art toward nature and people, departing from medieval formalism and stiffness. In architecture, they moved away from Gothic to a classicism derived from the styles of Greece and Rome. Economically, the Renaissance spirit spurred innovation through this “human ambition” which was applied by urban and commercial leaders, such as seafarers like Columbus, in their desire for exploration and conquest. 

Petrarch

One of the major literary figures of the Western Renaissance; an Italian author and humanist 

Petarch took pride in his city and age and explored the glories of personal achievement with new confidence, showing the new focus on stylistic grace and codes of behavior for urban gentlemen that the Renaissance brought. 

Castile and Aragon

Regional kingdoms of the Iberian Peninsula; pressed reconquest of peninsula from Muslims and ultimately united under the Spanish monarchy 

Castile and Aragon united through the royal marriage of Ferdinand and Isabella who were prominent figures in the seafaring expeditions of the Spanish and Portuguese. The Spanish and Portuguese also developed a vigorous military and religious agenda, supporting effective armies and creating a closer link between the church and state, creating a mutually beneficial relationship between the two. 

Vasco da Gama

Portuguese captain who sailed for India in 1497; established early Portuguese dominance in Indian Ocean

Vasco de Gama was the first European to reach India by sea, preparing Portuguese entry into the Indian Ocean, and paving the way for future European exploration into the Indian Ocean, and eventually into the Americas. His expeditions also represented the successful seafaring innovating at this time, such as through the use of compass, astrolabe, mapmaking, and improved ship making. 

Henry the Navigator

Portuguese prince responsible for direction of series of expeditions along the African coast in the 15th century marked beginning of western European expansion 

Henry the Navigator was extremely influential to European exploration because he sponsored a third of Portuguese, the most powerful explorers at the time, voyages of exploration. This paved the way for future European exploration and colonization in areas outside the continent like the Americas. In addition, his mixture of motivations, such as scientific curiosity, desire to spread the name of Christ and financial interest, reflected some of the major key forces in this period. 

Polynesia

Initial bases in islands such as Tahiti, Samoa, and Fiji, from 7th -14th century expanded and migrated northward to the islands of Hawaii and southward to New Zealand, leading to Polynesian influence on their cultures. 

Polynesia was extremely influential in shaping the civilizations of other neighboring islands. They spread into Hawaii, creating an extensive civilization and culture there, consisting of regional kingdoms, caste systems, written languages, agricultural systems and more. They also spread southwest to the Society Islands, which make up New Zealand. These Polynesians, called the Maori, produced an expanding population that also had organized social structures and elaborate cultures. Most importantly, the Polynesians were the last of the major isolated cultures to encounter the larger world influence brought on by the European explorers. 

Chapter 15

Topic 2.1:  The Silk Roads

Theme

Historical Developments

Response/Content to Support

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Improved commercial practices led to an increased volume of trade and expanded the geographical range of existing trade routes—including the Silk Roads—promoting the growth of powerful new trading cities.  

• Increased commercial practices led to the establishment of new powerful trading cities such as those in the Swahili Coast, the Sultanate of Mecca and in the Malay Peninsula. 

The growth of interregional trade in luxury goods was encouraged by innovations in previously existing transportation and commercial technologies, including the caravanserai, forms of credit, and the development of money economies.

• New commercial practices, like the use of credit, helped to increase trade by providing a uniform currency for merchants and making it easier for them to purchase goods. 

• A caravanserai was a roadside inn where travelers (caravaners) could rest and recover from the day's journey. It was an important station for the exchange of cultures, ideas, and goods, and promoted interregional trade by enhancing the safety and comfort of trade routes. 

Demand for luxury goods increased in Afro-Eurasia. Chinese, Persian, and Indian artisans and merchants expanded their production of textiles and porcelains for export; manufacture of iron and steel expanded in China. 

• The development of the Silk Road increased demand for Silk from China and Persia as trade on the silk road expanded under the development of empires, and overseas trade was also intensified as maritime innovations developed.  

• After the Crusades, Muslim elites had increasing consumption of Asian luxury products, including spices such as cinnamon and nutmeg, silks, perfumes, jewels and more. Since they mainly had cruder goods to offer, their value of exports never equaled the value of what was imported from Asia -> this had to be made up in gold, which started to drain their economy. 

Topic 2.2: The Mongol Empire and the Making of the Modern World

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Empires collapsed in different regions of the world and in some areas were replaced by new imperial states, including the Mongol khanates.

Song Empire replaced by Yuan Dynasty - Kubilai Khan: 

• In 1271, Kublai changed the name of his Mongol regime to a Chinese-language dynastic title, the Yuan -> he ruled most of China 

• Kublai rule of China 

  • Passed many laws to preserve the distinction between Mongol and Chinese 

  • However, he was long fascinated by Chinese civilization 

    • Surrounded himself with Chinese advisors 

    • Introduced Chinese rituals and classical music into his own court 

    • Put his empire on Chinese calendar 

    • Offered sacrifices to his ancestors at a special temple in the imperial city 

    • But he did not reestablish the civil service exams 

  • New social structure was established 

1. Mongols 

2. Central Asian nomadic and Muslim allies 

3. Ethnic Chinese and minority peoples of the south 

Fall of Abbasid Caliphate 

• Capture and destruction of Baghdad in 1258 

• Murdered the Abbasid caliph -> ended the dynasty that ruled the core regions of the Islamic world 

• Victory over the Seljuk Turks opened up Asia Minor to conquest by Ottomans, who became next great power in the Islamic heartland 

• Muslim historians treated Mongol destruction as one of the greatest catastrophes in history of Islam 

  • Left Muslims without central authority or focal point of civilization 

  • Immense relief when Mongols were finally defeated by the armies of the Mamluk

    • Muslim victory was won with rare cooperation of the Christians 

Mongol influence on Russia 

• Initiated two and a half centuries of Mongol dominance in Russia 

  • Russian princes submitted as vassals and had to pay tribute 

  • Russian peasantry had to give their crops and labor to both of their own princes

    • Fled or became serfs out of fear 

• Some Russian towns benefited from increased trade due to Mongol links - especially Moscow 

  • Profited from its status as tribute collector for Mongols 

  • Princes used that position to fill their own coffers and annexed other towns as punishment for not paying tributes 

E

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The expansion of empires—including the Mongols—facilitated Afro-Eurasian trade and communication as new people were drawn into their conquerors’ economies and trade networks. 

• The generous patronage of the Mongols drew scholars, artisans, and administrators to the Yuan court, leaving a myriad of cultural aspects spread through this communication. Muslims designed and supervised building of his imperial city and proposed new systems for more efficient tax collection and Chinese scholars helped to design a bureaucratic system for their government. 

• Kubilai Khan welcomed travelers and emissaries into his empire so Buddhists, Christians, Daoists, and more, made their way into his court. 

  • Marco Polo wrote a world famous account of his court and empire which enhanced European interest in Asia and inspired efforts by future navigators, like Columbus. 

• The expansion of the Mongol empire helped to improve trade routes, like the silk road, by enhancing their security through policing and better infrastructure. The enhanced safety of the Silk Road allowed for an increase of travelers going from Europe into Asia, such as Marco Polo. 

C

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Interregional contacts and conflicts between states and empires, including the Mongols, encouraged significant technological and cultural transfers 

• The Mongol conquests brought peace to Asia and facilitated a significant increase in cultural exchange. Secure trade routes were made for prosperous merchants and wealthy, cosmopolitan cities, leading to an increase of travelers moving across the trade route and spreading their culture to the various civilizations they traded with.  

• Chinggis Khan was always open to new ideas and committed to building a world where the diverse peoples of his empire could live together in peace. Once his conquered people were subdued, he had a keen interest in their unique cultures. In his established capital, Karakorum, he summoned the wise from all parts of his empire to share aspects of their cultures. There, political ideas, ranging from Confucian scholars to Muslim engineers, and unique beliefs, such as Daoism and Islam were shared to Chinggis and implemented into his vast empire. 

Chapter 12

Topic 1.4: State Building in the Americas

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In the Americas, as in Afro-Eurasia, state systems demonstrated continuity, innovation, and diversity, and expanded in scope and reach.

Aztecs: 

• Founded city of Tenochtitlan in 1325

• Aztecs to take more active role in regional politics

  • Serving as mercenaries and allies brought prosperity 

• Aztec dominated from Tarascan frontier a hundred miles north of MExico City southward to Maya area 

• Subjected people were forced to pay tribute, surrender lands, and sometimes do military service

• Mexico became more stratified under Aztecs 

  • History was written to describe Mexicas as people chosen to support the gods 

• Human sacrifices expanded into enormous cult where military class supplied war captives as sacrificial victims 

  • Aztec rulers manipulated this into means of political terror

  • Cult of human sacrifice and conquest united with political power of ruler and nobility

• Dependent on traditional forms of agriculture and innovations developed by the Aztecs 

  • Adopted system of irrigated agriculture through chinampas 

    • Artificial floating islands that allowed for farming in the water, and for water to reach all plants easily 

    • More than 20,00 acres of chinampas created 

    • Yield from chinampa agriculture was very high 

    • However, rise in lake levels made it impossible to continue for a period of time

• In each Aztec community, local clans apportioned the lands and individual nobles might have private estates

• Aztecs divided into seven calpulli, or clans, a form of organization they later expanded and adapted to their imperial position 

• Technology of Americas limited social development 

  • Women spent significant time grinding maize -> in Egypt these techniques were eventually replaced by animal or water powered mills 

Incas 

• Reasons for conquest and expansion: 

  • Economic gain, political power, keeping with Inca culture and ideology 

• Cult of ancestors extremely important: 

  • Deceased rulers mummified, treated as intermediaries with gods, paraded, offered foods and gifts, etc 

• Practice of royal split inheritance 

  • All political power and titles of the ruler went to his successor, but all his palaces, wealth, land, and possessions given to male descendents who used it for dead Inca’s mummy 

• To ensure Inca’s cult and place for eternity, each Inca needed to secure new land through conquests 

  • Greater number of past rulers -> greater number of royal courts -> greater demand for labor, lands, and tribute -> created self-perpetuating need for expansion 

• Political and social life was infused with religious meaning 

• Government organization: 

  • Inca ruled from court at Cuzco 

  • Bureaucracy 

• Road systems throughout empire 

Chapter 11

Topic 1.6: Developments in Europe from c. 1200 to c. 1450

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Christianity, Judaism, Islam, and the core beliefs and practices of these religions continued to shape societies in Europe.

Christianity, Islam, and Judaism continued to significantly influence every aspect of societies in Europe. Christianity played a major role in Europe, as it was the foundation for their entire culture and government, and was the cause of numerous critical events and changes in their society. Christianity also was very important in bringing cultural unity throughout Europe through this shared religion. In government, the Church played an unparalleled role in the government, with the Pope having utmost authority during some time periods, and even church officials having a say in government decisions through the parliament. There were many disputes in the government between the Church and State, such as over lay investiture, which was a constant source of conflict. The Christian monasteries also helped improve the state of living through helping to cultivate land, and promoting education and literacy. Major events that brought many changes to European societies, such as the Spanish Reconquest and Crusades also were a result of Christianity’s influence, and the Popes desire to spread Christianity and take back “holy lands”. Next, Christianity significantly influenced the culture of Europe in academics, philosophy, arts, and literature. In academics and philosophy, the Church opposed 

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Europe was politically fragmented and characterized by decentralized monarchies, feudalism, and the manorial system.

Manorialism: 

• Europe had a manorial system of economic and political relations between landlords and their peasant laborers. Serfs received protection from landlords in return for giving produced goods and staying on their land. 

Feudalism 

• Greater lords provided protection to lesser lords, vassals. Vassals in turn owed lords military service, goods, payments or advice. Feudal relationships could be extended to cover larger regions and whole kingdoms .

• Feudalism inhibited the development of strong central states in Europe 

Feudal Monarchy in england

• William the Conqueror extended his tight French feudal system to England 

• Tied great lords of England to his royal courts 

• Used royal officials to help supervise administration of justice 

• Combined feudal principles with more centralized approach

S

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Europe was largely an agricultural society dependent on free and coerced labor, including serfdom.

Europe’s economy was largely built upon Manorialism and Feudalism where peasants, or Serfs, were tied to the land of the land-owners and had to give up their produced crops in exchange for protection and land. 

Topic 2.5 Cultural Consequences of Connectivity

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As exchange networks intensified, an increasing number of travelers within Afro-Eurasia wrote about their travels. 

A number of travelers wrote about their travels within Afro-Eurasia due to the better development of trade routes like the Silk Road through economic and urban advancements under well-developed civilizations. These travelers included Ibn Battuta, a Muslim traveler who wrote one of the world’s most famous travel blogs regarding his journey across and beyond the Islamic world, and Marco Polo, an Italian merchant and explorer, who traveled from Europe to Asia, visiting Kubilai Khan’s court and staying in China for 17 years. These travelers helped to bring increased awareness and interest into the lands they traveled to through their famous travel writing. 

Topic 2.6: Environmental Consequences of Connectivity

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There were continued diffusion of crops and pathogens, with epidemic diseases, including the bubonic plague, along trade routes. 

The Bubonic Plague spread along the Silk Road and was carried from China by fleas on rats in the saddle bags of Mongol cavalrymen across central Asia to the Black Sea, and from there by ships to the Mediterranean and Europe. The plague determined all societies that it spread to, nearly halving European civilization and sending them into a series of both positive and negative societal changes.

Chapter 16

Topic 2.3:  Exchange in the Indian Ocean

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Interregional contacts and conflicts between states and empires encouraged significant technological and cultural transfers, including during Chinese maritime activity led by Ming Admiral Zheng He.

• Zheng He’s expeditions in the Indian Ocean, Persian Gulf, and Red Sea led to cultural transfers between Asia and the Middle East and Africa. His extensive fleets impressed, or terrified, local rulers sound the Indian Ocean, many of whom paid tribute to the emperor. 

• Several missions visited China from the Middle East and Africa. From Africa also came ostriches, zebras, and giraffes for the imperial zoo; the latter became the unicorns of Chinese fable. 

Topic 2.5: Cultural Consequences of Connectivity

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Increased cross-cultural interactions resulted in the diffusion of literacy, artistic, and cultural traditions, as well as scientific and technological innovations. 

• Increased cross-cultural interactions through the expansion of trade resulted in the spread of religions, technological innovations and artistic traditions inter-regionally. 

  • Islam spread to Africa from Muslim traders and diffused throughout the continent along trade-routes 

  • The ideas and innovations of various societies within the Mongol empire were diffused throughout 

  • The astrolabe and compass from China were shared to Europe, playing a crucial role in their development as sea traders 

  • Artistic traditions from the Byzantine empire were seen in European societies 

The fate of cities varied greatly, with periods of significant decline and periods of increased urbanization, buoyed by rising productivity and expanding trade networks. 

• During this time period, the fates of cities varied greatly; many suffered collapse from the Mongol invasions, like the monumental city of Baghdad, but others were able to advance and develop through continuous innovations in economics, technology and politics. In Italy, cities like Florence flourished under the Renaissance era, developing each aspect of their society, from arts to literature to religion. On the other side of the world, cities located on the expanding trade networks like Kilwa and Samarkand were also able to develop rapidly through the monopolization of traded goods.

Review

Topic 1.7: Comparison of State Formation

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State formation and development demonstrated continuity, innovation, and diversity in various regions.

• Various unique and well-developed states arose during this time period, each possessing evidence of continuity, adapting to the past societies, innovations in various fields and diversity in cultures, political practices, and more. 

  • African States: Mali, Songhai, Swahili City States 

  • The Americas: The Aztecs, Incas, Mayans 

  • Europe: Italy, Holy Roman Empire 

  • Asia: Mongol empire, Yuan Dynasty, Ming Dynasty 

Topic 2.7: Comparison of Economic Exchange

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A deepening and widening of networks of human interaction within and across regions contributed to cultural, technological, and biological diffusion within and between various societies.

• Networks of exchange, developed from major trade routes like the Silk Road, Indian Ocean Trade Route, and Trans-Saharan trade route, led to the exchange of ideas, religions, innovations, diseases, and cultures. 

  • The Black Death spread from Asia into the Western world through the Silk Road 

  • Islam spread across Africa on the Trans-Saharan trade route 

  • Christian missionaries and writers traveled across the Silk Road, bringing their religion into new regions 

  • Scientific innovations from India and China like the Astrolabe and Compass were shared with Europe, helping them with their overseas trade. 

Changes in trade networks resulted from and stimulated increasing productive capacity with important implications for social and gender structures and environmental processes. 

• Changes in trade networks resulted from increased productive capacity from improved commercial practices and innovations 

  • The development of caravans and caravaneis made trading more efficient and safe, facilitating cultural exchange at these trading houses 

  • The improvement of navigational techniques and shipbuilding helped expand trade across the Indian Ocean 

• The cultural exchange that took place on trade networks impacted the social and gender roles, due to the introductions of new religious and cultural values 

  • Islam spreading from the Middle East into Africa influenced their preexisting social structures, and somewhat influenced their gender structures, although they mostly maintained pre existing gender values 

  • The development and spread of Buddhism influenced the social structure and gender roles in East Asia, providing a counter to the harsh values of Confucianism in China and Korea