Feminism in the United States — Comprehensive Study Notes
Origins of Feminism: Word Origin and Early History
Charles Fourier, a French philosopher, coined the term "feminisme" in 1837. The Latin root "femina" means woman and "ism" means principle or doctrine. The word started to be in use in France in 1872, in Great Britain in the 1890s, and in the US in 1910. Women argued for equality in Europe and the U.S. earlier than the word feminism started to circulate.
This painting is by Elisabeth Vigee Le Brun (French, 1755-1842). She fought sexism and painted portraits of Marie Antoinette in France. As a woman, she could not paint male nudes, so she hid male subjects in female forms. She also exhibited strength through her direct gaze in her self-portraits.
Simple Definition
Feminism is about all genders having equal rights and opportunities.
It’s about respecting diverse women’s experiences, identities, knowledge and strengths, and striving to empower all women to realize their full rights.
This painting is by Alma Thomas (Washington, D.C.: 1891-1978), a prominent African American woman painter, who is the first African American woman featured at the Whitney Museum in New York City.
The Waves Metaphor
Waves symbolize the time frames within the feminist movement: just like ocean waves, feminism rises, reaches a peak, then recedes, but each wave leads to the next.
The four waves of feminism show increasing levels of action and achievement, followed by periods of consolidation or “lesson,” with each wave building on the previous one.
First Wave Feminism (1848-1920)
Seneca Falls Convention in New York in 1848.
Focus areas of suffragettes:
lack of property rights
lack of women’s suffrage (the right to vote)
participation and representation in government
inequality in divorce law
inequality in education and employment opportunities
abolition of slavery
Sexism and Propaganda; Everyday Sexism
Propaganda opposed the suffrage movement by shaping perceptions about gender roles.
Sexism is judging people by their gender and discrimination based on gender; it affects both men and women, but women are more affected in many areas.
Everyday sexism can be subtle and overt: jokes about girls, objectifying women, comments on dress, assigning easier tasks, and implying women aren’t smart enough to vote.
Important Suffragettes
SUSAN B. ANTHONY (1820-1906): A white activist who wrote a document to abolish slavery.
MARIE BALDWIN (1863-1952): Indigenous (Chippewa), first Indigenous woman to graduate from law school.
IDA B. WELLS (1862-1931): African American activist, civil rights leader, fought for suffrage (the right to vote).
Mary Cassatt and the Sunflower Symbol
Mary Cassatt’s "Woman with a Sunflower" was exhibited in 1915 in New York City to raise money for the suffrage movement.
Suffragettes wore sunflowers; yellow is a symbol for voting rights.
1920-1960: The Intervening Years and Rosie the Riveter
The USA experienced economic depression, World War II, and the Cold War during this period.
During WWII, white middle-class women were encouraged to work in wartime factories; women of other racial backgrounds also worked, expanding the overall workforce.
More than 6{,}000{,}000 women entered the workforce.
After the war, the government encouraged women to return to traditional roles, but many remained in the workforce.
Rosie the Riveter became the iconic symbol of women factory workers.
WWII Poster Excerpt (Rosie the Riveter)
Poster elements include slogans such as:
"Do the job"
"GOOD WORK. SISTER left behind"
"WE NEVER FIGURED YOU COULD DO A MAN-SIZE JOB!"
"AMERICA'S WOMEN HAVE MET THE TEST!"
Second Wave Feminism (1960-1990)
White women analyzed how the media portrays women as objects; fought for:
equal pay for equal work
reproductive rights and access to healthcare
opposition to plastic surgery and pornography
awareness of domestic violence and rape
Gloria Steinem is a key figure.
Black women fought for bodily autonomy in public space and for full voting rights and healthcare access (Jim Crow laws: 1877-1964).
Asian American women drew attention to refugees from Vietnam through community organizing (Yuri Kochiyama).
Indigenous women highlighted representation in films and land repatriation (Marie Louise Cruz).
Cut Piece (1964) by Yoko Ono
A landmark performance work from the 1960s-70s where Ono sat in a suit with scissors placed before her.
The audience was invited to approach and cut off a piece of her clothing, which they could keep.
The piece explored how much people would take from the artist and the body as a site of artistic expression.
Guerrilla Girls
Founded in 1985, an anonymous group of feminist, female artists.
They fight sexism and racism within the art world.
They create posters and stickers highlighting the lack of representation of women in the art world.
Link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3WqBI20bd2k
Third Wave Feminism (1990-2012)
Inclusion: emphasize listening to diverse perspectives (immigrants, Black women, Indigenous women, etc.).
Girl Power: celebration of femininity, fashion, makeup, high heels, and empowerment through beauty.
Choice: reproductive rights, pornography, and plastic surgery decisions are up to the individual woman.
Political Power: focus on increasing women in positions of power; equality in work and pay; recognition of childcare needs; inclusion of men in discussions.
Fourth Wave Feminism (2012-Present)
Online activism (#girlgaze, #heforshe, #sayhername, #bringbackourgirls).
Focus on sexual harassment (MeToo), domestic violence, and rape.
The #MeToo movement began in 2006 by Tarana Burke as a hashtag to raise awareness of harassment.
Emphasis on body shaming, bullying, and body positivity.
Globalization’s effects on women and greater political involvement for women.
Black Lives Matter (BLM) movement highlighting police brutality in Black communities.
Types of Feminism
Radical Feminism: seeks a complete overhaul of the system; anti-sexist in all major institutions (schools, government, hospitals, prisons, religious bodies) through policy change and mass education.
Reformist Feminism: aims for equality within the existing political system, especially in the workforce; uses policy changes.
Contemporary Feminism: confronts sexism within the women’s community; critiques include internal competition, body-shaming, and debates over motherhood, education, and work decisions.
Lifestyle Feminism: asserts that there can be many versions of feminism aligned with different lifestyles; politics may be de-emphasized.
Eco-Feminism: connects feminism with environmentalism; developed through late 1970s to early 1980s discussions; links oppression of women with degradation of nature.
More Women's Issues (Key Topics)
1) Violence against women and girls
2) Gender pay gap
3) Digital gender divide
4) Informal work and instability
5) Period poverty and stigma; lack of access to menstruation products
6) Underrepresentation as leaders in health
7) Lack of respect for caregiving
8) Navigating career and motherhood
9) Sexism and sexual harassment
10) Digital bullying and stalking
11) Paid maternity leave from work
12) Lack of access to healthcare
13) Access to affordable childcare
14) Lack of women in positions of power
15) Feminization of Poverty — increased representation of women and children among the poor