Independent Africa - Angola

Angola and the Cold War

Angola's Geography and Location

• Angola is a large country located south of the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) on the Atlantic Ocean, possessing a significantly longer coastline.

• It is bordered by Namibia to the south and Zambia to the west.

• Luanda, the capital city, is situated on the coast of Luanda Bay.

Angola Under Portuguese Rule

• Portuguese colonization began in 1575 with the establishment of São Paulo de Loanda (Luanda), leading to conflict with the Ndongo Kingdom.

• The name Angola originates from the Ndongo word "ngola" for ruler.

• The Berlin Conference of 1884-1885 consolidated the colony's boundaries, granting Portugal control over inland territories despite their limited active control mainly to coastal regions.

• Economic activities included farming rubber, food crops, and cattle on plateaus, ivory acquisition through hunting, and the establishment of mines and railways, enriching Portugal through exports.

• After World War II, Angolans demanded independence, which was ignored by the fascist Portuguese government under António Salazar.

• Various political parties formed from 1953 onward, leading to the emergence of three primary liberation movements.

• António Salazar supported the Nazis during WWII (1940).

Major Liberation Movements

The MPLA (People’s Movement for the Liberation of Angola)

• Founded in 1956, with strong communist roots.

• Received substantial support from the Ambundu people and educated Angolans in Luanda.

• Agostinho Neto became the leader in 1962.

• Neto, born in Luanda, studied medicine in Portugal and was arrested for political activism.

• The MPLA was supported by the USSR, Cuba, East Germany, Romania, and Tanzania, as well as SWAPO (South West African People’s Organisation).

The FNLA (National Front for the Liberation of Angola)

• Holden Roberto founded a political party in 1954, which became the FNLA in 1962.

• Roberto descended from the Kongo monarchy and resided in the Belgian Congo before its independence.

• Initially based on Bakongo nationalism, it aimed to become a national liberation organization but remained focused on northern Angola.

• Roberto sought support from Mobutu in the DRC/Zaire, leading to Western support.

• Supported by the DRC/Zaire, the USA, China, France, and Israel during the Angolan War of Independence.

UNITA (National Union for the Total Independence of Angola)

• Founded by Jonas Savimbi in 1966 after failed attempts to join the MPLA and the FNLA.

• Savimbi was born in central Angola and studied in Portugal.

• Initially linked to Chinese communism, UNITA later shifted towards American capitalism.

• Gained significant support in southeastern Angola, particularly among the Ovimbundu people, Savimbi's ethnic group.

• Supported by China, the USA, Egypt, and South Africa during the Angolan War of Independence.

Angolan War of Independence (1961-1975)

• A liberation war against Portuguese colonizers that began in January 1961.

• Led to growth in size and strength of the three liberation movements.

• Became entangled in the Cold War, with the USSR supporting the communist-leaning MPLA, and the USA supporting the anti-communist FNLA and UNITA.

• Angola's mineral wealth heightened the desire for influence from both the USA and the USSR.

• After relations between China and the USSR deteriorated, China denounced “Soviet imperialism” in Angola supporting FNLA and, to a lesser extent, UNITA.

• The war caused tension in Portugal, leading to the Carnation Revolution in 1974, which overthrew the fascist regime and paved the way for granting independence to its colonies.

• The Alvor Agreement was signed in January 1975 by Roberto, Neto, and Savimbi with Portugal, agreeing to end the war, hold general elections in October 1975, and grant Angola independence in November 1975.

• The agreement led to a sudden exodus of approximately 300,000 Portuguese citizens from Angola.

• The Alvor Agreement recognized the three liberation movements as the sole representatives of the Angolan people and formalized a ceasefire.

• The agreement stressed that Angola was a single indivisible entity within its existing geographical and political boundaries with Cabinda forming an integral part of the Angolan territory.

• Power was to be shared by a High Commissioner appointed by Portugal and a Transitional Government presided over by a Presidential Council composed of one member from each liberation movement.

• The agreement also provided for the creation of a unified armed force composed of 24,000 men from the Portuguese army and another 24,000 drawn in equal proportion from the three liberation movements.

Angolan Civil War (1975-2002)

• Conflict among the three liberation movements surfaced by July 1975, each claiming the right to rule.

• After Angola gained independence on November 11, 1975, this conflict escalated into the Angolan Civil War.

• Influenced by:

  • Ethnic differences

  • Ideological differences

  • Support from various foreign powers

• The initial battle was for control of Luanda as Angola’s administrative and business center.

• The FNLA initially had the most powerful military force and formed an alliance with UNITA, supported militarily by South African troops and financially by the USA. Zaire and China also supported the FNLA.

• Cuban forces and Soviet military equipment supported the MPLA, enabling them to take control of Luanda and much of the coast.

• UNITA and the FNLA retreated inland, with UNITA to the south and the FNLA to the north.

• International support during the civil war largely mirrored that of the War of Independence, with some shifts.

• China withdrew support from UNITA due to its acceptance of support from South Africa’s apartheid government.

• The MPLA also took control of Cabinda, an oil-rich region, facing resistance from those seeking independence for the territory.

• Despite the war, the MPLA attempted to run a socialist regime from Luanda, facing challenges due to the departure of Portuguese civil servants.

• The country faced near bankruptcy due to stalled public sector activities.

• The flag of Angola, chosen by the MPLA, was based on their flag but included a half cog and a machete, similar in style to the Soviet flag, representing industrial and agricultural workers and the struggle for independence.

Angola as Part of the Cold War

• The MPLA was supported by the USSR and its satellite states in Eastern Europe, as well as Cuba, aiming to spread communism.

• The USA supported UNITA and the FNLA to limit the spread of communism.

• UNITA also received support from South Africa, while the FNLA received support from Zaire and China.

• International involvement prolonged the civil war and increased casualties.

• South Africa opposed the MPLA due to fears of the ANC gaining power and SWAPO establishing bases in Angola to attack South African forces in South-West Africa.

• Zaire supported the FNLA due to ethnic and family connections between Roberto and Mobutu.

• China supported the FNLA to compete with the USSR for influence in Africa.

• In late 1975, UNITA and the FNLA established a coalition government in Huambo.

• By early 1976, MPLA attacks weakened the FNLA, leading the MPLA to fight UNITA for control.

• UNITA became a guerrilla force, and in 1976, the MPLA attacked Huambo, forcing UNITA to retreat and establish a base in Jamba.

• Later in 1976, the OAU recognized the MPLA as Angola’s government and Neto as its president.

• In 1977, the MPLA killed thousands in a political purge, declaring itself a Marxist-Leninist Party.

• In 1979, Neto died, and Jose Eduardo dos Santos became the leader of the MPLA and President of Angola.

• In the early 1980s, the South Africa Defence Force (SADF) re-entered Angola to attack SWAPO bases and support UNITA, leading to UN condemnation.

• Cuba increased its troop presence, and the USSR increased financial aid to the MPLA.

• Under Reagan's presidency, the USA resumed aiding UNITA against the MPLA government.

• In the mid-1980s, the CIA helped develop UNITA’s base at Jamba, which allowed the USA to deliver supplies directly.

• The increased US involvement strengthened UNITA, leading the MPLA to start peace negotiations in 1987.

Impact on Regional Stability

• After Angola's independence in 1975, Southern Africa became less stable.

• Refugees from the civil war caused instability in Zaire and Zambia.

• Angola’s independence encouraged Black Liberation Movements against white domination in South Africa, South-West Africa (Namibia), and Rhodesia (Zimbabwe).

Battle of Cuito Cuanavale

• The MPLA's armed wing was called Forças Armadas Populares de Libertação de Angola (FAPLA).

• After independence, FAPLA was effectively Angola’s national army.

• UNITA maintained control of southeastern Angola and regularly received assistance from the SADF based in the Caprivi Strip in Namibia.

• In September 1987, FAPLA entered southeastern Angola to oust UNITA.

• The SADF aided UNITA to maintain control of southern Angola.

• In October 1987, the SADF pushed forces back to Cuito Cuanavale and laid siege to the town, resulting in the Battle of Cuito Cuanavale.

• The MPLA requested assistance from the Cuban army.

• The Cubans, arriving in Russian-made MiG fighter jets, attacked SADF forces from the air.

• The SADF attacked the town six times between January and March 1988, resulting in heavy casualties and starvation.

• In March 1988, the Battle of Cuito Cuanavale ended, but conflict continued in other parts of southeastern Angola.

• Peace negotiations, initiated by the MPLA in the USA, included Cuba and South Africa.

• A ceasefire was declared in August.

• In December 1988, the New York Accords ended foreign involvement in the Angolan Civil War and granted independence to Namibia.

• In June 1989, the MPLA government and UNITA again agreed to a ceasefire, but conflict resumed due to disagreements over Savimbi’s temporary departure from Angola.

• Both sides claimed victory in the Battle of Cuito Cuanavale.

Later Conflict (Post Cold War)

• The Cold War ended in 1989, and the USSR stopped supporting the MPLA, leading the USA to stop supporting UNITA.

• The MPLA ceased being a Marxist-Leninist organization but remained left-wing, restructuring its economy to receive economic assistance.

• In May 1991, the MPLA and UNITA signed the Bicesse Accords, agreeing to multi-party elections and unification of armed forces.

• General elections were held in September 1992 with UN observers, resulting in the UN declaring the election results “generally free and fair”.

• Savimbi rejected the elections as rigged, leading to the Halloween Massacre, where MPLA members killed UNITA supporters, and the civil war resumed.

• In 1993, the USA recognized the MPLA government and stopped supporting UNITA.

• The civil war continued, resulting in significant casualties.

• In 1994, the MPLA government and UNITA signed the Lusaka Protocol, with UNITA agreeing to disarm and integrate into the army and police force.

• In 1996, the MPLA and UNITA agreed to form a unity government, which broke down in 1997 due to Savimbi refusing a post and few UNITA troops joining the national army.

• In 1998, the war resumed, and in 1999, the MPLA took control of Jamba.

• In 2002, Savimbi was killed, leading UNITA to agree to a ceasefire.

• The MPLA government and UNITA signed the Luena Memorandum and the Lusaka Protocol, officially ending the Angolan Civil War.

• UNITA disarmed and became an opposition political party.

• The Angolan Civil War ended, leaving behind numerous landmines causing injuries and fatalities.
  Luanda still contains many destitute people who fled there from the rural areas during the civil war.
  Angola is benefitting from the Cabinda oilfields, as well as its oilfields south of the Congo river mouth.