Approaches

Origins of psychology: Wundt, introspection and the emergence of psychology as a science

• Psychology had its roots in philosophy and biology, but when German doctor and psychologist William Wundt opened the world's first experimental laboratory at the university of Leipzig in 1879, it marked a turning point: psychology's emergence as a separate and distinct scientific discipline. He moved study of the mind from philosophical roots to controlled empirical research. He promoted the use of introspection as a way of studying mental processes. Introspection is a systematic analysis of one’s own conscious experiences of a standard stimulus, then reporting the experience. A standard stimulus Wundt used was often a metronome. An inward experience was analysed in terms of its components, such as sensations, emotional reaction, and mental images. Thoughts would be broken down into separate elements and then the participant would be asked to report these.

• The research was systematic as the same stimulus with the same surroundings and instructions were given to each participant, and participants were highly trained. Breaking thoughts about an object down into separate elements was an attempt to uncover the structure of the mind. This approach was called structuralism.

Wundt’s contribution to Psychology:

• Wrote first textbook of psychology (Principles of Physiological Psychology, 1873-4)

• Set up first laboratory of experimental psychology (1875)

• Used the scientific method to study the structure of sensation and perception

• Showed that introspection could be used to study mental states in replicable laboratory experiments.

Evaluation

• He paved the way for later scientifically controlled research into psychology

• Wundt’s work was criticised by later behaviourist learning theorists who thought that internal mental processes could not be scientifically studied by introspection. They focused only on observable inputs (stimuli) and outputs (behaviour). 

• The study of mental processes was later continued by cognitive psychologists who built models of how systems such as memory worked. However they used experimentation, not introspection.

• The timeline of psychology goes Wundt in 1879 and Freud at the 1890s with introspection, then the behaviourists Pavlov (1890s), Watson (1913), and Skinner (1940) who suggested that to give psychology greater credibility and comparable to other science it should measure objectively and use scientific methods like laboratory experiments, then there was Bandura in the 1960s with SLT talking about the impact of social interactions on our behaviour. The humanist school of psychology also appeared at around this time, rejecting the idea of studying humans in a scientific way. Cognitive psychology developed from the 1960s onwards and see the mind as a computer. Biological psychology as we know it emerged in the 1990s. Cognitive neuroscience is the most modern form of psychology.

Learning approaches: the behaviourist approach, including classical conditioning and Pavlov’s research, operant conditioning, types of reinforcement and Skinner’s research; Behaviorism

Assumptions:

• All behaviors are learnt from our environment.

• Focus on observable behavior (behavior that can be seen).

• Animals and humans learn in the same ways so behaviorists carry out experiments on animals and extrapolate the results to humans.

• Psychology should be scientific and the only things that could be objectively measured were the stimulus (input) and response (output), therefore behaviorists use mainly laboratory experiments to achieve this.

• To behaviourists directly measuring the mind was untestable due to being subject to bias

• Classical conditioning: learning by association- Watson and Rayner (1920) used a 9 month old baby boy in an experiment to show the importance of the environment over instinct for learning and behaviour. When shown a range of stimuli (fire, monkeys, dogs ..etc) Little Albert showed no fear response. A white rat would be presented to Albert, paired with a metal bar being hit behind his head to make a loud noise. After a few presentations Albert developed a fear response to the rat, which then generalised to anything fluffy or white (fur coat, dog, santa mask). So Watson found that you could condition a fear response into a baby purely by using the environment.

• Classical conditioning is learning through association and was first demonstrated by Ivan Pavlov. Pavlov (1927) showed that dogs could be conditioned to salivate at the sound of a bell if that sound was repeatedly presented at the same time that they were given food.

• First the dogs were presented with the food, they salivated. The food was the unconditioned stimulus and salivation was an unconditioned (innate) response.

• Then Pavlov sounded the bell (neutral stimulus) before giving the food. The bell and the food had a temporal association because the two stimuli were experienced close together in time, so an association was formed. After a few pairings the dogs salivated when they heard the bell even when no food was given. The bell had become the conditioned stimulus and salivation had become the conditioned response.

• The dogs had learnt to associate the bell with the food and and salivation was triggered by the sound of the bell.

• Operant conditioning: learning by consequences- Skinner argued that learning is an active process. When humans and animals act on and in their environment consequences follow these behaviors. If the consequences are pleasant they repeat the behavior but if the consequences are unpleasant they do not repeat the behavior.

• Positive reinforcement: is receiving a reward.

• Negative reinforcement: occurs when performing an action stops something unpleasant happening. For example in one of Skinner’s experiment a rat had to press a lever to stop receiving an electric shock.

• Punishment: this is an unpleasant consequence. Positive punishment is adding something unpleasant, and negative consequence is removing something pleasant.

• Extinction occurs when a behaviour that was previously reinforced stops being reinforced and so gradually stops happening.

• Primary reinforcers such as food, water and sleep don’t need pairing with another stimulus to be reinforcing

• Secondary reinforcement is when an idea or action is reinforced by a primary reinforcer (i.e: money can buy food)

• Intermittent reinforcement is when behaviour isn’t reinforced every time it happens. Some behaviours like gambling or slot machines follow a variable ratio rule of winning every few times, but not in a predictable pattern, resulting in behaviours that are compulsive and very resistant to extinction.

• The Skinner Box (1953)- A hungry rat was placed in a cage. Every time he activated the lever a food pellet fell in the food dispenser (positive reinforcement). The rats quickly learnt to go straight to the lever after a few times of being put in the box

• This suggests that positive reinforcement increases the likelihood of the behavior being repeated.

• In another experiment, a rat was placed in a cage in which they were subjected to an uncomfortable electrical current as he moved around the cage the rat hit the lever, this immediately switched off the electrical current (negative reinforcement). The rats quickly learnt to go straight to the lever after a few times of being put in the box.

• This suggests that negative reinforcement increases the likelihood of the behavior being repeated. This experiment was an example of shaping, as Skinner reinforced successive approximations to get to the final target behaviour (i.e: every time the rat pulled the lever it was given food, even before it had figured out the association).

Applications

• Behaviorism has increased our understanding of the causes of phobias and attachment. It allows us to develop laws and principles by which to predict and control human behaviour, giving rise to therapies such as systematic desensitisation and token economy.

Evaluation

• Behaviorism has experimental support: Pavlov showed that classical conditioning leads to learning by association. Watson and Rayner showed that phobias can be learnt through classical conditioning in the “little Albert” experiment.

• It introduced the scientific methods to psychology. Laboratory experiments were used with high control of extraneous variables. These experiments were replicable and the data obtained was objective (not influenced by an individual’s judgement or opinion) and measurable. This gave psychology more credibility.

• Many of the experiments carried out were done on animals; we are different cognitively and physiologically, humans have different social norms and moral values these mediate the effects of the environment therefore we might behave differently from animals so the laws and principles derived from these experiments might apply more to animals than to humans.

• It does not explain important aspects of human behavior such as memory and problem solving as these are internal mental events which cannot be observed.

• It does not take into account biological factors such as the role of neurotransmitters, for example a low level of serotonin can give rise to depression or high level of dopamine is involved in OCD.

• It sees people as passive in their learning with little conscious thoughts influencing their behavior; other approaches recognise the importance of mental events in the learning process.

• It has ethical issues as it can be used by governments and/or gambling companies to encourage people to behave in ways that they wouldn’t rationally choose to.

• It neglects the influence of free will as it argues that our behavior is the result of previous conditioning. Skinner argued that free will is an illusion.

Social learning theory including imitation, identification, modelling, vicarious reinforcement, the role of mediational processes and Bandura’s research

• Bandura agreed with the behaviorists that behavior is learnt through experience however he proposed a different mechanism than conditioning. His approach assumes that learning takes place in a social context due to exposure to the behaviours of others. These other people act as models. The models can be real people who are actually around us at the time (live models) or symbolic models such as characters or celebrities on the TV. 

• Stages of the Social Learning Theory: SLT also differs from behaviourism as SLT suggests that certain internal mental cognitive processes (mediational factors) that need to take place between the stimulus (from the model) and the response (the reproduction of the behaviour) for learning to occur. They are:

1. Attention: The individual needs to pay attention to the behavior and its consequences and form a mental representation of the behavior.

2. Retention: Storing the observed behavior in LTM where it can stay for a long period of time. Imitation is not always immediate.

3. Reproduction: The individual must be able (have the ability and skills) to reproduce the observed behavior.

4. Motivation: Individuals must expect to receive the same positive reinforcements (vicarious reinforcement) for imitating the observed behavior that they have seen the model receiving.

• Imitation is more likely to occur if the model (the person who performs the behavior) is positively reinforced. This is called vicarious reinforcement. Similarly behaviours are less likely to be repeated if the model is punished (vicarious punishment).

• Imitation is also more likely if we identify with the model. We see them as sharing some characteristics with us i.e. similar age, gender, social status as we identify with them.

• Learning and performance are not the same. Performance (reproducing the action) isn’t necessary for learning it (processing and internalising it for potential reproduction at a later date). So unlike in behaviourism, the output (behaviour) isn’t immediate and could be delayed for some time.

• The Bobo doll study - Bandura et al. (1961) 

• Method: It was a lab experiment. 

• Sample: American children, 36 boys and 36 girls aged between 3-6 years old who were matched for aggression levels.

• Group 1: 12 girls and 12 boys were shown a model hitting the doll with a hammer and shouting at the doll.

• Group 2: 12 girls and 12 boys were shown a non-aggressive model.

• Group 3: 12 girls and 12 boys (control group) were not shown a model.

• Then the children were taken to a room with some attractive toys but were told not to play with the toys (aggression arousal).

• Then the children were taken individually in a room containing a bobo doll, non-aggressive toys like pencils and plastic farm animals and aggressive toys like a hammer and a pistol.

• Results:The children who had observed the aggressive model (group 1) were more aggressive than the children from the other two groups. Group 1 imitated specific aggressive acts that were displayed by the model. Boys imitated more physically aggressive acts than girls. There was no difference in the verbal aggression between boys and girls.

• Conclusion: This supports SLT as it shows that children imitate behavior of role model even if the behavior is aggressive.

• Bandura and Walters (1963): The bobo doll experiment was repeated, but this time the three groups were exposed to an aggressive model and saw different consequences for the model:

• Group 1: the model was praised

• Group 2: the model was punished (told off)

• Group 3: no consequences for the aggressive behavior

• Results: When left on their own to play the children in group 1 showed the most aggression followed by group 3. Group 2 was the least aggressive.

• Conclusion: This shows that imitation is more likely to occur when the model is positively reinforced, demonstrating the importance of vicarious reinforcement.

Applications 

• This theory is used to explain the influence of the media on behavior. This has been used in court in the case of Jamie Bulger’s murder (1993).

• The perpetrators, who were themselves children, claimed that they had been influenced by the film Child’s Play 3. However these children came from a disturbed family where they might have witnessed real life violence and social deprivation.

Evaluation

• Social learning theory is supported by research Bandura et al. (1961) and Bandura and Walters (1963) however these were laboratory experiments and the task did not reflect the way the participants behave in their normal life.

• SLT sees all behaviours as environmentally determined, but some behaviours (such as innate phobias not resulting from personal experience) may be better explained by biological explanations.

• At this young age parents would guide children's’ understanding of the situation and moderate their behavior this was not the case in the studies as the children were on their own. The children were aggressive towards a doll which they know does not feel pain and cannot retaliate; their behavior might be different towards another child.

• Furthermore the children were in an unfamiliar environment they might have thought that they were expected to behave like the model (demand characteristics).

• The participants were young children, older children and adults might not have imitated the aggressive behavior as they have more developed moral values.

• The theory does not explain why the boys imitated the physical aggressive behavior more than the girls. Other factors must be involved such as biological factors like testosterone.

• SLT can explain the difference of behavior between different cultures as if a behavior is not displayed it cannot be imitated, this can explain why groups such as the Amish are non-violent.

• SLT can be used to explain the influence of media on aggressive behavior.

• It is a more complete explanation of human behavior than conditioning as it takes into account cognitive factors in learning. However it does not take into account free will and moral values.

Behaviourism in terms of the debates

• Free will vs determinism- Strong determinism of the behavioral approach as all behavior is learnt from our environment through classical and operant conditioning. We are the sum total of our previous conditioning.

• Softer determinism of the social learning approach theory as it recognises an element of choice as to whether we imitate a behavior or not.

• Nature vs nurture- Behaviorism is very much on the nurture side of the debate as it argues that our behavior is learnt from the environment. The social learning theory is also on the nurture side because it argues that we learn our behavior from role models in our environment. The behaviorist approach proposes that, apart from a few innate reflexes and the capacity for learning, all complex behavior is learned from the environment.

• Reductionism vs holism- The behaviorist approach and social learning are reductionist; they isolate parts of complex behaviors to study. The behaviorists take the view that all behavior, no matter how complex, can be broken down into the fundamental processes of conditioning.

• Idiographic vs nomothetic- It is a nomothetic approach as it views all behavior governed by the same laws of conditioning. However, it does account for individual differences and explain them in terms of difference of history of conditioning.

• Scientific?- The behaviorist approach uses lab experiments which are highly controlled therefore they are replicable. Furthermore, it measures observable behaviors, therefore no interpretations is required therefore the data is objective. However the behaviorists use animal experiments as it assumes that humans learn in the same way than animals.

The cognitive approach: the study of internal mental processes, the role of schema, the use of theoretical and computer models to explain and make inferences about mental processes

• Cognitive psychology has been influenced by developments in computer science and analogies are often made between how a computer works and how we process information.

• Based on this computer analogy, cognitive psychology is interested in how the brain inputs, stores and retrieves information.

• This has lead to models which shows information flowing through the cognitive system such as the multi-store model of memory.

• Assumptions- The main assumption of the cognitive approach is that information received from our senses is processed by the brain and that this processing directs how we behave.

• These thoughts can be both conscious and non-conscious, and these thoughts pass through stages called internal mental processes.

• Mental processes are information processing completed by the brain, and the brain’s processing can be compared to that of a computer. 

• Internal mental processes cannot be observed directly but we can infer what a person is thinking based on how they act.

• Models are used to provide testable theories about mental processing and these can be studied scientifically and inferences made.

• The role of schemas and inferences- Piaget first used the term schema. A schema is a mental framework of experience or expectations about the world and/or objects that helps us organise and interpret information. They are based on our previous experiences.

• Schemas help us to interpret incoming information quickly and effectively, this prevents us from being overwhelmed by the vast amount of information we perceive in our environment.

• Assimilation is when we add new information to an existing schema. Accomodation is when an old schema has to be adapted, or a new schema created.

• However it can also lead to distortion of this information as we select and interpret environmental stimuli using schemas which might not be relevant. This could be the cause of inaccuracies in areas such as eyewitness testimony. It can also explain some errors we make when perceiving optical illusions.

• There are many kinds of schemas such as self-schemas, role schemas, and event schemas.

• As internal mental processes cannot be directly observed, an inference is going beyond the immediate evidence that has been observed to make assumptions about the underlying structure of mental processes. What is being inferred (i.e: difficulty in processing) would be assumed on the basis of what is measured (i.e: time taken to solve the problem in different conditions).

• A computer model is how we can think of the structure of the brain as analogous to a computer, i.e: CPU= brain, Coding= turning stimuli into thoughts, Memory stores= specialist memory areas of the brain, Output= behavioural responses.

• Theoretical models are like flow charts used in computer programming and are a representation of how information flows and is processed through a mental systems, such as memory or attention. Models produce testable theories that can be studied with scientific methods, and inferences made from experiments.

• Research methods used by the cognitive approach: Laboratory experiments: These are the preferred method of investigation of the cognitive approach i.e. Loftus and Palmer (1974) - Car Crash Study. In these experiments the extraneous variables are tightly controlled so they can be replicated, but they lack ecological validity as they take place in artificial environments and the tasks are also artificial. Case studies: These are used to study rare conditions which provide an insight on the working of some mental processes i.e. Clive Wearing, HM.

• Although case studies deal with very small sample so the results cannot be generalised to the wider population as they are influenced by individual characteristics, they allow us to study cases which could not be produced experimentally because of ethical and practical reasons.

• Brain imaging: fMRI and Pet scans are used to map areas of the brain to cognitive function because the processing of information by centres in the brain to be seen directly. Such processing causes the area of the brain involved to increase metabolism and "light up" on the scan. i.e. Braver et al. (1997).

The emergence of cognitive neuroscience

• Cognitive and biological psychology can be integrated into a field of study called Cognitive Neuroscience as a way of understanding human behaviour. CN aims to find out how cognition is produced by the interaction of neural mechanisms, brain structure, and brain chemistry. This is done using brain imaging techniques such as fMRI and PET scans. Examples of brain mapping: see Braver et al (1997) in the memory topic

Applications of cognitive psychology

• The study of memory has lead to the development of cognitive interview which has decreased the inaccuracy of eyewitness memory; this should lead to a decrease of wrongful convictions.

• It also helped us understand the causes of depression and the approach also proposes a therapy, cognitive behavioral therapy which has shown to be effective for a range of mental disorders and unlike drugs has no side effects.

Evaluation of cognitive psychology 

• The cognitive approach uses a very scientific method; mainly lab experiments. These are controlled and replicable so the results are reliable however they lack ecological validity because of the artificiality of the tasks and environment so it might not reflect the way people process information in their everyday life.

• Uses inferences to assume underlying processes in thinking, and this is unscientific as internal mental processes cannot be directly tested and so inferences may be incorrect.

• By highlighting the importance of cognitive processing, the cognitive approach is able to offer an explanation for mental disorders such as depression where Beck argues that it is the negative schemas we hold about the self, the world and the future which lead to depression rather than external events.

• However it does not take into account the genetic factors which seem to be involved in mental disorders such as schizophrenia. 

• The approach is reductionist as it does not take into account emotions and motivation which influence the processing of information and memory for example according to the Yerkes-Dodson law anxiety can influence our memory.

• Individual mental processes such as memory are seen as distinct, however there is little explanation of how cognitive processes work together.

• However the cognitive approach is less deterministic than the behavioural approach as although it argues that our thinking is limited by the way we process information it does not deny the influence of moral values and social norms.

Cognitive psychology in terms of the debates

• Free will Vs determinism- The position of the approach is soft determinism as thoughts are influenced by previous experiences (schemas) and brain structure, but conscious thought can override these as an expression of freewill, as seen in cognitive therapies such as systematic desensitisation.

• Nature Vs nurture- The cognitive approach takes an interactionist view of the debate as it argues that our behavior is influenced by learning and experience (nurture), but also by some of our brains’ innate capacities as information processors e.g. language acquisition (nature).

• Holism Vs reductionism- The cognitive approach is machine reductionism as it describes human thinking as processing like a computer, and this idea is unable to explain human irrationality in many decisions and the role of emotions.

• Idiographic Vs nomothetic- It is nomothetic approach as it focuses on establishing theories on information processing that apply to all people. However it does tend to use case studies of individuals with brain injuries to make suggestions about the structure of mental processes before testing the theories in large-scale experiments.

• Are the research methods used scientific?-The cognitive approach uses lab experiments which are highly controlled therefore they are replicable. However, it measures non-observable behaviors; therefore it could be argued that it is not as scientific as the behaviorist approach.

The biological approach: the influence of genes, biological structures and neurochemistry on behaviour

Assumptions:

• There is a direct correlation between brain activity and cognition

• Biochemical imbalances can affect behaviour

• Brain physiology can affect behaviour

• Behaviour can be inherited (as it is determined by genetic information)

• Genes are the genetic information carried by DNA in chromosomes, found within a cell’s nucleus; they are passed on through generations of a species if individuals survive and successfully reproduce. In line with Darwin’s theory of evolution, it might also follow that genes form a basis of behaviour, as both behaviour and genes appear to be heritable. An example might be aggressive behaviour, in light of obvious survival benefits such as warding off predators and competing for resources.

Genotype and phenotype, genetic basis of behaviour, evolution and behaviour

• The genotype describes the genetic configuration of an individual, whereas phenotype describes the combined effects of genetic makeup and surrounding environment on behaviour. The nature-nurture debate highlights a key argument in psychology, over the relative influence of biology and environment on the characteristics of an individual; an extreme biological approach assumes that these are determined solely by nature.

• Effects of brain physiology and neurochemistry- Interactions between regions of the brain help to control different functions, which biological psychologists assume to be significant in determining our actions. For instance, the occipital lobe is involved heavily in processing sight, along with the frontal lobe, which is thought to be involved in control and attention.

• Electrical impulses enable an important means of internal communication that directs our behaviour, travelling around the brain and to/from the body via the nervous system. Impulses are transmitted between neurons (nerves) at synapses, junctions where neurotransmitters are released that inhibit or excite other neurons to achieve different responses. Neurochemical imbalances in the brain are often associated with abnormal behaviour – for instance, evidence suggests that imbalances of dopamine (a neurochemical linked with the brain’s natural ‘pleasure’ system) are associated with mood disorders such as depression.

• The endocrine system is a slower-acting communication system that regulates the circulation of hormones, released by glands into the bloodstream. For example, cortisol and adrenaline are key hormones that facilitate the fight or flight response, a key evolutionary survival mechanism whereby the body primes itself for imminent danger (e.g. increasing heart rate, initiating sweating to cool down, dilation of pupils, sharpened sense of hearing).

Research methods used by the biological approach:  

• Animal studies – used to investigate biological mechanisms that govern human behaviour, often where ethical guidelines would not allow human participation. Many species (e.g. rats) are thought to have a similar biological makeup to humans, such that studies’ conclusions can be generalised to humans. However, this methodology still raises ethical debate, and some argue that complex human behaviour cannot be replicated in non-human animals like rats, and thus cannot be investigated.

• Case studies – can investigate normal behaviour by observing behavioural abnormality alongside corresponding changes in biology. A very early example is the apparent personality alteration observed in Phineas Gage (mid 1800s) after a railroad construction accident drastically changed his physiology by forcing an iron rod through his brain’s frontal lobe.

• Drug therapy – behaviour can be manipulated by altering an individual’s biochemistry, a research method that can ultimately lead to developing drug applications to improve health and wellbeing. Initial phases of research are usually conducted on non-humans.

• Scans – physiology and activity across the brain can be gauged using various techniques (e.g. MRI, PET, CAT), helping researchers to identify the functions of specific regions (known as localisation of cortical function).

• Twin/family studies are useful for investigating the heritability of behaviour. For instance, research can investigate the likelihood that both of two twins develop a characteristic, known as a concordance rate. However, these studies can be time-consuming, due to long delays often required before follow-up data is collected. It is also difficult finding a large samples of participants for twin studies.

Applications

• The understanding of the role of the role of neurotransmitters has led to the development of drugs which are effective in the treatment of mental disorders such as schizophrenia and depression. This enables many of the sufferers to lead a fairly normal life.

• However these drugs are not effective for all patients and they can have serious side effects and they do not cure the disorders as if the patients stop taking the drug the symptoms reappear.

Evaluation 

• It uses scientific research methods such as EEGs, fMRI and PET scans and twin studies. These produce objective data which can be replicated and peer reviewed.

• It could be argued that twin studies do not separate nature and nurture because twins are raised and live in the same environment and the difference in the concordance rate found between MZ and DZ twins could be due to the fact that MZ twins are treated more similarly by their parents than DZ twins because they look more similar.

• Also we usually do not find 100% concordance rate in MZ twins for mental disorders which indicates that environmental and social factors must be involved in the development of these disorders.

• It could be argued that the imbalance in neurotransmitters such as low serotonin in depressed individual is the consequence rather than the cause of depression because the brain is a plastic organ which changes with the way we use it so it could be that the depressed thinking causes the low level of serotonin observed.

• Furthermore the imbalance in neurotransmitters is usually not directly observed it is deduced from drug trials where patients are given the drugs and seen to improve so we deduce that it was the lack of the neurotransmitters which cause the disorder but this might not be the case.

• For example if we cut ourselves and the cut becomes infected it is not the lack of disinfectant which causes the infection it is the presence of germs.

• Scanning research techniques are useful for investigating the functions of the brain: an organ with obvious involvement in our behaviour that would otherwise be unobservable.

• The experimental methods used (gathering empirical [i.e. observable] evidence) make this approach very scientific.

• The biological approach is deterministic as it sees our behavior as caused entirely by biological factors over which we have no control. This encourages people not to take responsibility for their own actions and blame their genetic makeup.

• It is also reductionist as it reduces our behavior to the outcome of the actions of genes and other biological processes neglecting the effects of childhood and our social and cultural environment.

The Biological approach in terms of debates

• Free will Vs determinism- It is strongly deterministic as it views our behavior as caused entirely by biological factors over which we have no control.

• Nature Vs nurture- The biological approach is firmly on the nature side of the debate; however, it does recognise that our brain is a plastic organ which changes with experience in our social world so it does not entirely deny the influence of nurture.

• Holism Vs reductionism- The biological approach is reductionist as it aims at explaining all behavior by the action of genetic or biochemical processes. It neglects the influence of factors such as early childhood experiences, conditioning or cognitive processes.

• Idiographic Vs nomothetic- It is nomothetic approach as it focuses on establishing laws and theories about the effects of physiological and biochemical processes that apply to all people.

• Are the research methods used scientific?- The biological approach uses very scientific methods such as scans, and biochemistry. Animals are often used in this approach as the approach assumes that humans are physiologically similar to animals.

The psychodynamic approach: the role of the unconscious, the structure of personality, that is ID, ego and superego, defence mechanisms including repression, denial and displacement, psychosexual stages 

Assumptions:

• The main assumption of the psychodynamic approach is that all behavior can be explained in terms of the inner conflicts of the mind.

• Freud highlights the role of the unconscious mind, the structure of personality and the influence that childhood experiences have on later life.

• Freud believed that the unconscious mind determines most of our behavior and that we are motivated by unconscious emotional drives.

Tripartite Personality- According to Freud our personality is composed of three parts (tripartite)

• Id: it is the biological part (instincts and drives) of the personality. It is present at birth. The Id is motivated by the pleasure principle; it demands instant gratification of its needs.

• Ego: develops from 1 - 3 years. It is motivated by the reality principle. It mediates the conflicts between the ID and superego. It uses defence mechanisms to achieve this.

• Superego: develops from 3 - 5 years. It is motivated by the morality principle. It punishes the ego with guilt for “wrong doing”.

• To be mentally healthy the ego has to be able to balance the demands of the id and the superego. If the superego is dominant, the individual might develop a neurosis e.g. depression. If the ID is dominant, the individual might develop a psychosis e.g. schizophrenia.

The Mind- The mind is divided in three parts:

• The conscious: this is the part we are aware of and can access without any effort. It contains part of the ego.

• The preconscious: this a part of the mind that we cannot access without effort. It contains the ego and some of the superego.

• The unconscious: this part of the mind cannot be accessed without the help of a trained psychoanalyst. It contains the superego and the Id.

• When unconscious conflicts between the Id and the superego cannot be resolved by the ego they create anxiety. To reduce this anxiety we use defense mechanisms such as repression.

Defense Mechanisms 

• Repression: Is used by the ego to keep disturbing memories out of the conscious mind and in the unconscious mind where they cannot be accessed, e.g. sexual or aggressive urges or painful childhood memories.

• Displacement: An impulse may be redirected from its original target onto a more acceptable one, e.g. being angry with your father and shouting at your little sister.

• Denial: the existence of unpleasant internal or external realities is denied and kept out of conscious awareness, e.g. having lost your job and yet you go to work every day.

Psychosexual Stages of Development 

• Oral (0-1 year) Mouth – sucking, swallowing etc. If forceful feeding, deprivation or early weaning occur then fixation could lead to oral activities (e.g. smoking), dependency, and aggression.

• Anal (1-3 years) The anus – withholding or expelling faeces. If toilet training is too harsh or too lax then fixation could lead to obsessiveness, tidiness, meanness; or to untidiness and generosity.

• Phallic (3-5 years) The penis or clitoris – masturbation. If abnormal family set-up leading to unusual relationship with mother/father then fixation could lead to Vanity, self-obsession, sexual anxiety , inadequacy, inferiority, envy,

• Latent (5-puberty) Sexual drives are repressed. Fixation does not happen in this stage.

• Genital (puberty-death) The genitals. The adult derives pleasure from masturbation and sexual intercourse. Fixation at this stage should occur in a mentally healthy adult.

Applications 

• The psychodynamic approach has given rise to one of the first “talking cure", psychoanalysis, on which many psychological therapies are now based. Psychoanalysis is rarely used now in its original form but it is still used in a shorter version in some cases.

• This approach can be used to explain mental disorders such as depression and schizophrenia although these explanations are rarely used by mainstream psychology.

• One of the very influential concept put forward by Freud is the lasting importance of childhood on later life and development.

Evaluation 

• The concepts of Id, ego and superego are very abstract and difficult to test experimentally so evidence is obtained from case studies (Little Hans and Anna O).

• However, the sample used in these case studies is mainly Austrian so lack population validity.

• These case studies used mainly unstructured interviews so yielded qualitative data. The need for interpretation of the material gathered means that it is biased on the part of the researchers as they tend to interpret the data in a way that supports their theory.

• Eysenck conducted a meta-analysis of thousands of psychoanalytic patients and found that 66% of patients recovered from their neurotic disorders when they had it, compared to 70% of the control group, casting doubt on its effectiveness at treating neurotic disorders and thus on Freud’s ideas.

• Furthermore, the fact that two different researchers can reach completely different interpretations of the same case suggests that the methods lack objectivity.

• The theory is not falsifiable as if people behave in the way predicted by the theory it is viewed as support, if they don’t it is argued that they are using defence mechanisms.

• The individual is not seen as responsible for their disorders however as the conflicts which lead to the disorder are unconscious there is nothing they can do about it without an analyst, they are disempowered.

• It cannot explain the biological symptoms observed in some disorders such as enlarged ventricles in schizophrenics.

• The psychodynamic approach is deterministic as it rejects the idea of free will. A person’s behavior is determined by their unconscious motives which are shaped by their biological drives and their early experiences.

• It recognises the influence of social and cultural factors as it proposes that we are driven by innate, biological instincts (nature) but that the way they are expressed is shaped by our social environment (nurture).

The debates in terms of the psychodynamic approach

• Free will Vs determinism- It is strongly determinist as it views our behavior as caused entirely by unconscious factors over which we have no control.

• Nature Vs nurture- The psychodynamic approach recognises the influence of social factors but also argues that we are driven by innate biological instincts, represented by the Id (nature), but the ways these instincts are expressed is shaped by our social and cultural environment (nurture). So it is interactionist.

• Holism Vs reductionism- The psychodynamic approach is holistic as all areas of an indvidual’s behaviour are taken into account.

• Idiographic Vs nomothetic- Both. Freud argued that human behavior is governed by universal processes that apply to everyone e.g. the tripartite structure of the mind (nomothetic) however, he also proposed that the ways in which these processes manifest themselves in the individual is unique (idiographic).

• Are the research methods used scientific?- No.The concepts proposed by Freud cannot be tested empirically. The theory is not falsifiable as if people behave in the way predicted by the theory it is viewed as support, if they don’t it is argued that they are using defence mechanisms.

Humanistic psychology: free will, self-actualisation and Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, focus on the self, congruence, the role of conditions of worth Assumptions:

• Every person has their own unique way of perceiving and understanding the world and that the things they do only make sense in this light. Therefore, the aim of this approach is not objectivity as the other approaches; its aim is to understand people’s subjectivity.

• People should be viewed holistically as if we only look at one aspect of an individual we may miss other explanations for their behaviour.

• According to this approach, people are self-determining, which means that they have free will they can make choices about the way they think and act. These choices are not determined by biological or other external factors.

• The scientific method is not an appropriate measure of behaviour as it tries to be too objective, yet humans are subjective in how they think and behave.

Self-actualisation (SEB SP)

• All people have an innate tendency towards growth and the fulfilment of their potential, they have a desire to become everything that they are capable of – self-actualisation.

• However, according to Maslow, people also have needs which must be met for self-actualisation to be possible. The basic needs e.g. food and water have to be satisfied before the higher.

• According to Rogers, people could only self-actualise if they had a positive view of themselves (positive self-regard). This can only happen if they have unconditional positive regard from others – if they feel that they are valued and respected without reservation by those around them (especially their parents when they were children).

• However, most people don’t perceive the positive regard of others as being unconditional. They tend to think they will only be loved and valued if they meet certain conditions of worth. These conditions of worth create incongruity within the self between the real self (how the person is) and the ideal self (how they think they should be or want to be).

• Self-actualisation is only possible if there is congruence between the way an individual sees themselves and their ideal self (the way they want to be or think they should be).

• If there is a large gap between these two concepts, negative feelings of self-worth will arise that will make it impossible for self-actualisation to take place.

Applications 

• The influence on counselling psychology- Based on this approach, client-centred therapy aims to increase clients’ self-worth and decrease the incongruence between the self-concept and the ideal self.

• It is a non-directive therapy in which the client is encouraged to discover their own solutions to their difficulties in an atmosphere that is supportive and non-judgemental and that provides unconditional positive regard.

• It focuses on the present rather than dwell on the past unlike psychoanalysis. This therapy is widely used e.g. health, education and industry.

Evaluation 

• It has given rise to a new way to look at people’s needs, for example Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is widely used in health and social work as a framework for assessing clients’ needs.

• Client-centred therapy is widely used in health, social work and industry. This therapy has helped many people overcome difficulties they face in life, which is a significant contribution to improving people’s quality of life.

• The approach uses non-scientific research methods. As its aim is to understand people’s subjectivity, it uses methods that yield qualitative data such as unstructured interviews or participant observations. These are difficult/ impossible to replicate and the interpretation of the data is influenced by researcher bias.

• It proposes a positive view of human nature, however, it could be argued that this might not be very realistic when considering the everyday reality such as domestic violence and genocides.

• Furthermore, the approach may be culturally biased to individualistic Western cultures that prioritise success and achievement, so not apply well to collectivist cultures where group success is more important. Humanistic psychologists may therefore view individuals from collectivist cultures as less able to self-actualise and thus view them as inferior.

Issues and debates (Humanism) 

• Free will Vs determinism- It is the only approach that explicitly states that people have free will, but its position on this topic is somewhat incoherent as on one hand it argues that people have free will but, on the other hand it argues that our behavior is determined by the way other people treat us (whether we feel that we are valued and respected without reservation by those around us).

• Nature Vs nurture- The approach recognises both the influence of nature and nurture (interactionist) , nurture- the influence of experiences on a person’s ways of perceiving and understanding the world, nature- influence of biological drives and needs (Maslow’s hierarchy of needs).

• Holism vs reductionism- The approach is holistic as it does not try to break down behaviors in simpler components.

• Idiographic vs nomothetic- As this approach views the individual as unique it does not attempt to establish universal laws about the causes of behavior, it is an idiographic approach.

• Are the research methods used scientific?- As the approach views the individual as unique it does not believe that scientific measurements of their behavior are appropriate.