HIS1101 Final

Confederation was a long process whose roots can be traced back to the 1850s and which was only completed in 1949

• When newfoundland entered confederation 

• 100 year process 

• British support essential to it moving forward 

• Without british support would not have been a success 

• Confederation does not make canada independent 

• By mid 1860s- british govt wanted to curtail military presence in north america 

  • Expensive 

  • Causes tension with US

• Wants to withdraw troops, leave something to defend itself that will be viable 

• Confederation largely canadian inspiration - britain wants it to happen and many Canadians 

• British north american act- largely canadian inspiration - most clauses written by Canadian political leaders 

• Confederation did not mark our independence from britain but instead confederate state that's transcontinental 

• Canada achieved autonomy in 1848 - responsible govt 

• Canada's foreign/constitutional affairs handled by britain

• British north america act- distinct colonies into single dominion of canada 

  • Senior self govt colony 

  • Canada as first dominion

The American Civil War provided the backdrop for the Confederation debate

• War between north and south - britain didnt back the south - had some diplomatic contacts with them tho - angered northern states 

• Britain supporting south 

• When north defeats south - north going to turn against canada, go to war with britian and seize canada 

Washington initially turned a blind eye to the activities of the Fenian Brotherhood

• US govt not going to ruin agreement to punish britain (Can go bankrupt and ask to join US)

• Fenian- series of raids on canada - several thousand irish american soldiers that attempt to invade canada 

• Many british north americans believe that only way to defend canada is to federate all diff colonies into single unit 

• Pressures towards annexation 

The political system of the Province of Canada was becoming increasingly dysfunctional

• By 1860s political system is dysfunctional 

• By 1860s govt rose and fell with growing frequency 

• Canada west demanding rep by pop more forcefully - significant political reform within province of canada 

• Most located in canada west but only 50% of seats in parliament 

• Canada east - unwillingness to grant political reform (rep by pop), poisoning the system 

• Britain forced two entities in marriage tg and not working

George Brown entered into a Great Coalition with John A. Macdonald and George-Étienne Cartier (conservative leaders of can west/east) 

• To achieve rep by pop and fund western expansion, end political deadlock = federate british north america - major political reform - Province of canada to move forward through federal system or other colonies to join in federal union 

• Goal is to achieve confederation 

• Coalition that united political enemies -formed and maintained with goal to solve colonies political/economic problems through federalism

• Annexation of canada to US 

In September 1864, delegates from the three maritime colonies came together in Charlottetown to discuss Maritime union

• End to reciprocity -Great fear of what this means 

• Maritime union =3 maritime colonies form into one single colony -help foster defence 

• Invite province of canada to send observers which hijack conferences agenda 

• Several leading figures show up and take control of conference and convince delegates from maritime colonies to discuss a larger british north american union 

Most of the provisions of the British North America Act were agreed to at the 1864 Quebec Conference (over 160 years ago) 

• The new union would be federal in nature

  • Central govt, provincial govt created -vested with powers from constitution 

• The federal parliament would be bicameral

  • Province of canada- Divided into ontario and quebec 

  • Confederation - marriage/divorce at same time 

  • Two chambers

    • 1) house of commons (lower house- rep by pop)- arranged according to population of various provinces 

    • 2) senate (upper house - regional equality) - ⅓ for maritimes, ont, quebec, west 

      • Elected house - dominated by ont/quebec 

      • Appointed senate- some regional balance - sober second look on legislation put forth in house of commons 

• The federal government was assigned powers that included banking, defence, Indigenous affairs, criminal law, the postal system, currency, international trade and navigation 

  • Defence- single canadian militia 

  • Criminal law- federal power 

  • International trade/navigation - lighthouses = cant navigate without them - controlled by fed govt 

  • All major sources of taxation controlled- tariffs  

• Provincial legislatures would control education, health and social services, civil law, municipal administration, and natural resources 

  • Civil law- provincial

Newfoundlanders wanted little to do with the scheme and Maritimers were skeptical

In Quebec, support for the confederation project was lukewarm

• No way out - least bad thing in a very bad world 

• Current system could not continue- many french canadians felt this way 

• Voters of canada west - hope in ontario that all west get annexed to ontario result in super province 

• Confederation project passed easily 

Only Ontario’s voters showed any real enthusiasm for confederation

• Separate schools get protection 

Quebec’s Catholic hierarchy generally approved of the scheme, as did the business establishment, particularly the railway industry

• Church and rouge hate each other 

• Railway interests - flurry of railway construction 

New Brunswick passed the Confederation agreement, but Nova Scotia only authorised continued discussion of the matter

• Promise by ottawa to build intercolonial railway 

• Railway interests that help fund campaign 

London united New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and the Province of Canada into the new Dominion of Canada on July 1st, 1867

• Province of canada/New Brunswick- yes to confederation 

• Nova Scotia wants to keep talking 

• Britain passed british north american act -nova scotia gets forced in 

• Ottawa remain as canada's capital 

• Quebec and new brunswick nervous with new regime 

• Nova scotians furious - talk about annexation/separation then be forced into country where they would be dominated 

Prince Edward Island entered Confederation in 1873 after the federal government promised to:

• Buy out the absentee landowners

  • Families through centuries granted property 

• Clear the island’s debt

• Establish year-round communications with the mainland 

• Grant the island six seats in the House of Commons

In 1867, the provinces were weak, and the federal government was strong

• Previous constitutions brought forward by britain with little consultation by canadians 

The federal government arranged for the transfer of the northwest from the Hudson’s Bay Company to the new Dominion in 1869

• Becomes transcontinental state 

• Land transfer- due to sale, a large number of canadian settlers in this region 

The Métis cause found a champion in Louis Riel

Riel established a provisional government in late 1869 which sought to negotiate the terms of the Northwest’s incorporation into the Dominion of Canada

• Block work down by federal surveyors 

• Establish provisional govt - temp govt to govern red river valley and negotiate with ottawa - force ottawa to negotiate transfer -creation of manitoba for metis people 

Orangeman Thomas Scott was executed under orders from Riel’s provisional government
in early 1870

• Try to control red river valley 

• Orange lodge - powerful protestant organization 

The Manitoba Act of 1870 created Canada’s first new province

• Created for the metis 

• Bilingual province 

• Riel successful in his endeavor 

• 2/3rds of canadas land mass - governed by lieutenant governor of ottawa

• Ottawa dispatches troops into red river valley and get rid of riels govt 

The federal government dispatched troops in 1870 to suppress the Red River Rebellion

• Riel and supporters believe they will be granted amnesty 

• Thomas scott- member of orange lodge (most powerful organization in ontario- wants revenge for Scotts death)  

British Columbia entered the Dominion of Canada in 1871

• Canada not independent till 1931 -still part of british govt 

  • Crown becomes canadian - division of crown 

• 1848- responsible govt 

• Canada becomes internally autonomous in 1848 

• Canada not an independent state 

• Orange lodge against metis people since most are catholics- also hate riel 

• Canadian dispatch troops in north west- doesn't want provisional govt to become governance of manitoba- dont want riel next premier or in house of commons 

• 1873- north west mountain police- future RCMP- paramilitary force -ensure no future disturbances will erupt 

• BC had debt problems- assumed by ottawa 

• British govt - bc to join canada- withholding responsible govt for the colony 

• Prevent american annexation 

Britain transferred sovereignty over the Arctic Archipelago to Canada in 1880

• Dominion expands north 

• Britain retained control over arctic islands - 1880 transfers jurisdiction to dominion of canada 

• Dominion expanded significantly 

A series of numbered treaties relinquished Indigenous title over the entire Canadian prairies

• 50 year process- where number treaties signed - entitle reservers for regions first nations 

• 1876- passing of Indian act 

• Roots of this system much older - reservation system traced back to french regime 

• Indigenous ppl put in precarious position 

• Mcdonald withhold fed aid to indigenous groups -not honouring treaty obligations to ensure the dont resist incorporation of their lands in dominion of Canada 

• Buffalo- cheap meat 

• Metis move to great plains -migrate in a way they did not before- more pressure on buffalo heards 

The Northwest Rebellion began in March 1885 when Métis and First Nations warriors launched a series of assaults on the NWMP and federal installations in the North West 

• Need someone to advocate for north west 

• Riel will come back and lead this agitation - political agitation - agitate for indigenous rights 

• Agitation turns violent- ottawa not listening to people of the northwest  

• North west engulfed in another rebellion 

• Leads to creation of manitoba 

• Fed govt represses rebellion- not a generalized rebellion 

In one of Canada’s most famous trials, Louis Riel was found guilty of high treason and sentenced to death

• Jury in finding him guilty- he not be sentenced to death- clemency (dont apply the mandatory death sentence) 

• Riel- political leader of rebellion 

• Riel wouldn't plead insanity even though showing signs of mental illness

• Orange lodge pressures mcdonald to have riel executed -refuses to grant riel clemency 

• PM Mcdonald can't afford to alienate orange lodge 

• Riel was hung

• Major watershed moment in canadian politics 

• Guilty of high treason, a rebel -deserved to be killed -seen as this 

• His execution was un-british -unleash storm of controversy in quebec 

  • Weaken french canadian confidence in confederation

The Riel Affair marked the beginning of the Conservative party’s decline in Quebec and, consequently, at the federal level

• Quebec voted as a block whereas ontario splits it votes- increases quebecs influence in fed politics 

• Conservative party less attractive to canadian voters 

Wilfrid Laurier would lay the groundwork for the Liberal party to become, in the twentieth century, Canada’s party of government

• 1870s/1880s- lib party becomes real liberal party 

• Rouge party- republican party- opposed to monarchical system of govt- under laurier lib party becomes proper lib party 

• Center arguments on the individual - at the center of liberalism 

• Catholic church hates the rouge 

A severe recession struck the European and North American economies in 1873

• Aggravate domestic difficulties of reciprocity treaty 

• Next 25 yrs characterized by slow and anemic economic growth 

• American tariffs rises steadily 

Macdonald’s National Policy sought to foster economic growth and industrial development through high tariffs, railway construction, and the settlement of the Prairie West

• Integrated policy 

• Large scale immigration- western settlement 

• Settling of prairie west- large market of consumers- goods produced in central canada 

• Tariff wall- a wall of taxes 

• Southern ont/southwestern quebec- greatest beneficiaries of economic protection 

Economic protectionism was particularly harmful to the economy of the Maritimes

• Suffered from being cut off from trading partner 

• Region suffering from decline in trans atlantic commerce 

The National Policy was the centrepiece of Macdonald’s political resurgence and made him into a nationalist icon

• Turns to protectionism as plan b 

• Response to americans refusal to sign trade agreement - national policy 

In spite of its economic woes, the Dominion steadily industrialised

• Industrial production doubled and as it did- workshops replaced by factories 

• De-skilling - many skilled workers downgraded to semi skilled or unskilled positions - shoemaker and have own shop 

• Unskilled factory worker -wages in montreal - $1 and $1.50 a day 

• Wage cuts very common 

• 12-16 hours a day 

• Those injured not receive compensation 

Wages for women and children were very low

• Women working in tobacco company 

• 25 cents 

• Sweating system -work at home 

• Textile industry - foreman drop off fabric at home and then come back and pick up shirts made 

• Working conditions difficult/child labor 

• Work place injuries/death 

• Labour laws inadequate to protect workers 

An American labour union, the Knights of Labor, was Canada’s largest union in the late nineteenth century

• Several decades before unions can improve working conditions 

Confederation prompted a flurry of railway construction

• Railway industry becomes one of canadas biggest industries 

• Railway construction allow montreal/toronto to extend economic influence west 

• Montreal has major milling industry- flour 

Difficult economic conditions drove hundreds of thousands of Canadians to migrate to the industrial centres of the United States

• Many canadians leaving farms 

• Canada losing more people to US

• International balance of migration was negative 

• America also in recession 

• Many canadians go to US to find work

French Canadian migrants established a number of petits Canadas in New England

• Attempt to recreate social institutions of french canada 

• Many settlers coming from PEI 

• Migrants from maritimes- largest groups of prairie settlers 

Immigrants entered the Dominion in large numbers, often to settle in the West

• Most coming from UK 

• Second largest- US 

• Continental europe as well and Asia 

Chinese labourers were brought in to help build the Canadian Pacific Railway

• Establish chinese canadian community in british colombia 

Urbanisation kicked into high gear in the 1880s

• Spurring urban growth 

• Other regions of canada- experience urban growth

• Winnipeg 

Lacrosse was Canada’s most popular sport in the late nineteenth century

• Most canadians gone to school/know how to read 

• Growth in schooling/literacy = contribute to rise of mass culture 

Week 9- March 5

Canada’s industrialization kicked into high gear from 1896 to 1918

• Power by electricity 

• Development of hydro electric power in quebec 

• Development in coal mining in bc/alberta 

The National Policy was pursued under the Liberal government of Sir Wilfrid Laurier, which swept the Conservatives out of office in 1896

• US- requested treaty agreements 

• needed reciprocity in tariffs 

• Liberals focus on labour/labour activism 

 The Ministry of Labour was created in 1909 as union membership and labour activism grew

• William mackenzie king- vision of govt acting as mutual third party

• Unions only given partial recognition

• Labour relations- ongoing issue 

Canada’s population increased from 4.8 million in 1891 to 8.8 million in 1921

• Population almost doubled -natural increase 

• Infant mortality rate declining 

• Massive immigration 

• Canadas cities- population growth 

Canada’s population was almost 50 percent urban by 1921

• Winnipeg and vancouver- populations over 150 thousand 

• Calgary, edmonton and saskatoon - established 

Women made up 25% of Toronto’s manufacturing workforce by 1911

• Especially unmarried women 

• Light industries- developing quickly- hiring many women 

• Women - major part of workforce 

• Paid less then male labours and no protection against layoffs 

• Unions hostile towards women 

Many were concerned about the morality of working women, city life and leisure

• Generated moral panic 

• Contradictory concern about these women= increased indepence/declined supervision make more vulnerable to sexual exploitation but also making them less virtuous 

• Sex trafficking 

Child labour remained common

• Many families lived below poverty line

• Working conditions = poor

Many urban families lived below the poverty line in slum conditions

• High mortality rate 

• Water supply? 

Public health infrastructure was rudimentary -  water treatments plants were rare before 1910

• Ban of unpasteurized milk 

Social welfare was limited to meagre indoor and outdoor relief

• Workhouses- underfunded/overcrowded/hard labour - minimal support 

• Indoor relief - provided in workhouses- food/shelter but had to perform 

• Outdoor relief- food/clothing/money - provided by churches/private charities - who deserved support up to moral judgement of charities 

• indoor/outdoor relief -inadequate -reformers seeking greater intervention from state/church 

The social gospel sought to Christianize modern industrial society

• Remained influential thereafter 

• Christianity as social religion 

• Social gospel response to industrialization/new scientific ideas 

• Several churches support farm groups 

The Social Service Council of Canada promoted social welfare legislation

• Old age pensions 

• Mothers allowances 

• Funded first social work programs - mcgill 

• Poverty cases by socioeconomic system itself rather then by individual behaviour 

• Socialism were one in the same 

• Minority but an influential one 

The temperance movement had considerable support by 1900

• Drunk Nism as root cause - poverty 

• Most provinces followed 

The women’s movement campaigned for women’s suffrage and social welfare legislation

• Challenged status quo 

• Maternal feminist- accepted that men and women were different but denied it made women inferior to men 

  • Argued that motherhood couldnt define women to domestic sphere = social problems caused by industrial modernity - located in public sphere 

  • Women to enter public sphere 

  • Women entitled to enter public sphere- more equipped to deal with modern problems 

  • Advocated for minimum wage for women and allowances for single mothers 

In 1916, Manitoba became the first province to grant women the right to vote and hold office, followed by the federal government in 1918

• Voting rights complete bc only apply to white women 

• Suffrage movement- rights of white women 

• Anglosaxicin nation - canada 

• Advocacy didnt extend to others - asian men/women not granted right to vote in canada 

The development of Marquis wheat and rapid settlement fueled rural development

The average rural Canadian did not benefit from economic protectionism

The settlement of the prairies was driven by government recruitment and the closure of the American frontier

• 500,000 americans moved to canadian prairies 

100,000 Ukrainians immigrated from Galicia and Bukovina, provinces of the Austro-Hungarian Empire

• Settled on the prariers 

• Immigration agents to encourage farmers 

Large numbers of Jews and Italians entered Canada in the early twentieth century

• Many in textile industry 

• Mining, railway construction and other industries 

• Poor working cond

• Racial prejudices on their impact towards Canada 

• Assimilation of new immigrants 

• Discrimination against these people- non british immigrants denied bank loans/child denied admission to uni 

Asian immigration was restricted by quotas, head taxes, and unreasonable travel requirements

• Maintain dominance of european ancestry 

• Immigrants arrive according to continuous journey- stop immigration from India 

• Schools in NS/Ontario -segregated until 1960s- curfews on black residences 

The residential school system expanded during the early twentieth century – 80 schools were in operation in 1931

• New schools located in west 

• Effort to assimilate indigenous peoples went hand in hand 

Indigenous children were isolated from their families, forbidden from their cultural practices, and frequently abused and neglected in these schools

• Schools segregated by gender 

• Boys cut hair short

• Children not allowed to use their birth names- french name given

• Assimilating indigenous legitimate- accepted by many -wide consensus 

 Resistance to the residential school system came primarily from within Indigenous communities

• Many fires lit by children in schools - also tried to run away

• Many parents resisted enrolling their children 

• Churches complaining about lack of attendance which made govt make attendance compulsory 

The province of Manitoba abolished bilingualism and Catholic education in 1890

Prime Minister Laurier negotiated a weak compromise with Manitoba Premier Greenway

• Allowed for some catholic education in province

• But no separate school system

By 1910, Franco-Ontarians represented roughly 8 per cent of the province’s population

• Irish catholic - controlled by french speakers- feared this

Regulation 17 abolished publicly-funded bilingual education in Ontario after grade two

• Significant resistance 

• Schools didnt have conditional protection 

• Abolished in 1944 

• Major shift happening in canada- language over religion as dominant cultural divide 

The late nineteenth and early twentieth century saw a rise in imperialist sentiment among English-speaking Canadians

• English speakers not considering french speakers as equal partners in confederation

Led by Henri Bourassa, French Canadian nationalists championed Canadian and provincial autonomy, minority education rights, and bilingualism 

Prime Minister Laurier tried as best as he could to manage the tension between imperialist and nationalist aspirations

• Britain looking for colonies for imperial defence - made it difficult 

In 1899 Britain asked Canada to contribute troops to the South African War to help subdue Afrikaner forces

• French canada opposed to involvement 

• Laurier- volunteer force 

Laurier created a distinct Canadian Navy in 1910, but this navy would revert to British control in the event of war

• Canadian navy- under imperial control 

• Pleasing no one 

Outside of Quebec, the central issue of the 1911 election was Canadian-American reciprocity

• Centerpiece of lauriers re-election campaign 

• Reciprocity only weakean imperial bond and lead to annexation 

• Issue was reciprocity with US ** -canada being annexed from the US

Led by Robert Borden, the Conservative party was in power from 1911 to 1921

The First World War marked a major turning point in Canada’s history

• Conflict roots traced back to 19th century 

• Britain and canadas entry into conflict - when invaded belgium 

• Britain entered war to prevent germany from becoming main power 

In 1914, Canadians received the news of Britain’s entry into the conflict with various degrees of enthusiasm

• Enthusiasm for this war 

• Especially in ontario and BC- largest number of british immigrants 

• Force designed to be raised in canada then sent to europe as part of british war effort 

• French canadians believe conflict will be short and britain will be victorious 

• French canadians duty to support britain/belgium/france 

• Canadas duty to support britain with troops -Britain and france needed our help and needed us to respond 

• Recruitment from beginning less intense in quebec then other provinces 

• Most canadians consider themselves british

By 1915-1916, many in English-speaking Canada began to accuse French Canada
of not pulling its weight

• Canada not giving everything it can to allied war effort because holding back

• 1916- borden govt- canada have military contingent of 5000 men out of population of 8 million 

• Borden would happily see every young man in canada die for british imperialism 

The Borden government passed legislation providing for compulsory military service in 1917

• Imposing conscription -canada experienced it before 

• Only way for quebec to pull its way would be to impose conscription 

• Support for conscription confined to english speaking canada - not a popular measure 

• All people in favour of conscription are english speaking cand but also some not in favour

• Ex. in prairies and maritimes (concern conscription will harm farm production)

• Conscription not a popular method - imposed by borden (created framework for it) 

• Bordens legitimacy beginning to erode 

Most English-speaking Liberals joined Borden’s Union government, but Laurier and his French Canadian MPs refused

• Create national unity govt 

• Asks liberals to join his coalition- most join 

• Former PM/others refuse to join borden 

In December 1917, Borden faced the electorate in Canada’s most fraudulent election

• Borden ensure victory through coalition government and by granting vote to women, but only those related to soldiers (husband, son or brother as soldier)

• Tells women if dont vote for conscription, husband/brother/son will die 

• If born in germany, austria, hungry or a mennonite,amish - conservative party took away your vote (these ppl normally voted for liberal party) 

• Liberal party- french cand and canadian either british or french - become disenfranchised 

• Soldiers get given a vote 

• Borden allows soldiers to cast vote 

• Outside quebec, violence against liberal candidates

In March 1918, anti-conscription riots in Quebec City claimed several lives and were repressed by the army

• Resistance to conscription fairly strong 

• Violence that emerges carries over- anti conscription riots claim several lifes 

• Protestors shooting at each other in the streets 

• Armed citizens shoot at the troops 

The vast majority of Canadians who saw action during the Great War were volunteers, not conscripts

• Canadian regiments all tied to a community 

• If regiment gets destroyed then all young men from that community are gone 

• No indigenous regiments because want to destroy indigenous

• Had a black regiment - for nova scotia - black people seen as not useful in combat 

  • Should apologize for assumption that black troops are not brave 

The conscription crisis radicalised Quebec’s nationalist movement, and set the stage for the emergence of the separatist movement

• Nationalist movement emerges- not attached to britain - more attached to idea of canada 

• First WW eats away at sense of faith in canada- emergence of separatism 

• French canadas opinions dont matter - minority group no one listens to 

• Most french canadians couldnt fathom not being part of canada 

Some 620 000 Canadians served during the First World War

• Some army accountants 

• Those that saw combat- either killed or injured 

• Massive contribution from a country of 8 million

Canadian troops played a major role on the Western Front

• Without canadian food/war material -unlikely britain would sustain war effort 

Life in the trenches was hellish

• PTSD very high 

• Chemical weapons used extensively

• Troops injured severely  

• Majority canadian soldiers under 21

• Battlefield tactics slow to adapt to modern war 

• Spanish flu- claim more soldiers than actual combat

• Canada achieved a sense of self due to battle of vimy ridge 

• Sense of canadianis that emerges

• Troops that fight - born in britain 

• Canada born on vimy ridge- hyperbole 

Canada took a significant step towards independence when it was sent a delegation to the
Versailles peace conference in 1919

• Canada being more then a colony grows outside of canada 

• Imperialism semitism hit high water mark then recede- slowly diminish 

• Canada makes major steps towards independence after WW1

• Every other victorious power got something 

• Australia, new zealand, japan get piece of empire 

• Canada emitted to new league of nations created out of treaty of versailles 

• Canada enters war because part of british empire, end of war now entering international organizations as full fledged member 

• Canada more then a colony - becomes generalized - changes as result of WW1

The First World War generated an economic boom in Canada

• Commodities and resources surge 

• Inflation in canada - value of canadian dollar was stable up to this point 

• 3 cents to mail a letter in canada 

• Federal spending surges during the war 

The federal government expanded its role in Canadian society during the Great War

• Income tax for first time -1917 - wartime measure (1% tax, supposed to be temporary) 

• Federal govt deciding what people will eat and consume 

• Govt institutes a series of boards - involved in the economy it had not been before 

• Fed govt - nationalized series of privately owned railways 

• Fed govt running railways 

Canada was hit hard by the economic recession that followed the Great War

• Price of COD/wheat - dropped in price 

• More people moving to US

• Industrial wages very stagnant- canadian workers experiencing wage rollbacks/cuts

A wave of strikes swept across the Dominion, culminating in a general strike in Winnipeg

• Repressed by Canadian govt 

• Many fear canada poised to fear communist revolution 

• Immigrants targeted - agents of revolution (those born in hungarian empire)

• Gun battles in the streets

Most Canadians did not enjoy the ‘roaring twenties’

• Restricted to middle/upper classes 

• Impression of experience of economic boom- instead deep depression/recession 

Imperialist sentiment declined after the First World War

• Canada sent a delegation to the 1919 Versailles Peace Conference and became a charter member of the League of Nations

  • League of nations- emergence out of first world war 

• The 1923 Halibut Treaty was negotiated with the US without British assistance 

  • First bilateral treaty 

• Canada exchanged ambassadors with the United States in 1926-1927

  • Before had diplomatic representation in washington  

• The 1926 Balfour Declaration recognised the dominions as sovereign states

  • Canada in practice a sovereign state  

• The 1931 Statute of Westminster put the Balfour Declaration into law 

  • Treat dominions as independent states - as foreign 

  • 1941- formalize this 

  • US recognizing independence 

• Britain retained control over our constitutional affairs until 1982 and the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council remained our highest court until 1949 

  • Canada declares war on germany by itself 

  • Create dominion to take over defence of empire in northern north america 

  • Principle of divisibility of the monarchy - all divided 

The 1921 election saw the Liberals, led William Lyon Mackenzie King, return to power

• Conservatives voted out of power - 1921 

The Progressive party swept the Prairie provinces and held the balance of power in Canada’s first minority parliament of the twentieth century

• Canadas two party system falls apart 

• Expression of western alienation 

The interwar years witnessed significant cultural and technological change

• Radio - powerful instrument -lead fed government to create CBC

The interwar years also witnessed a surge in movie attendance

• Sound not just visual 

The Canadian automobile industry grew rapidly in the 1920s and sales of automobiles surged

• Affordable automobiles 

• Before WW2 only wealthiest owned cars - changes

• Greater mobility 

• Culture more centered on the individual 

• Canada had 2nd largest automobile industry in world 

• Generalize car ownership begins in this era 

Week 10: March 12th 

The ‘Roaring 20s’ ended when the New York stock exchange collapsed in October 1929

• Great depression triggered by collapse + economic growth (speculation, easy credit. Over consumption/production)

• International trade strangled by economic protectionism 

• Roaring 20s- period of prosperity 

• Value of commodities dropped (wheat/fish)

• Set stage for great depression

  • Hundreds of american banks collapsed- many canadians lose their savings 

  • Financial bubble bursts 

  • Stock market crashed 

  • American banking system less stable then canadian 

• Effects in Canada 

  • Unemployment soars 

• American investment important to canadian economic growth and this source of investment begins to dry up

• Nations raising tariffs 

  • Attempt to protect their domestic industries - made depression worse 

  • Bad for canada- economy tied to exports 

  • Economic protectionism- one of causes of depression 

• Nations curtailing immigration - canada does this and affected by US doing so 

• Nations curtailing spending  

Between 1929 and 1933, Canada’s gross national product dropped by 42 per cent

• Canada's gross national product dropped by 42%

• Industrialization came to halt

• Unemployment rate Quebec/Ontario (most industrialized provinces) = 20-25%

• No unemployment support, no welfare

Newfoundland went bankrupt and was forced to ask Britain to be placed under direct rule

• Value of commodities reaching lows

• Wheat, corn, iron, fish

• Collapse of cod prices - hardship in Atlantic region

• GoV of NL goes bankrupt forced to ask britain to be placed under direct colonia

• Condition of bail-out: lose political autonomy

On the Prairies, the Depression coincided with a severe drought

• Economic + ecologic disaster overlaps

• Aggravates depression's effects

• Outside prairies: urban workers/farmers on prairies receive brunt

• Govs in canada not used to providing services on large scale, cant cope with unemployment

• WW2- secure unemployment insurance, service available 

• Church= main source of relief during depression (also strained even tho main source of relief) 

• No canadian bank fail during great depression- but still lose investments 

• Middle class invested in stock market- money they didnt have 

Various levels of government initiated make-work projects

• Many political leaders/public servants believed great depression was temporary

• No programs initiated to deal with this problem 

• Make-work projects- punctual assistance - band aid solutions 

• Why family was the first line of assistance followed by churches 

• Most canadians learn to make do with less and live with uncertain future

• Marriage rates drop- men have to show they can provide - many unemployed

• Birth rate- major decline - declining since industrialization but really drops in 30s

• Baby bust of 1930s- rapid/demographic event 

• Many families attempt to limit number of births happening  

• Families unable to send children to school/clothing  

• Canada's universities- significant decline in enrolment 

• Urbanization- steadily growing for last 100 years, suddenly stagnates 

• Farm to city- stops - whats the point of moving to city if going to be unemployed 

Various levels of government encouraged rural migrants to return to the land

• City of montreal- if unemployed- montreal will give you money to go back to the farm 

• Not all canadians suffered from depression 

• Gold mining industry, value of gold went up 

• State incomes, value of dollar increased through deflation 

• Deflation more then 10%

• Anyones income that was stable- did well during depression

  • Those living off fixed annuities (retirement money)

  • Managers 

  • Public servants 

President Roosevelt’s New Deal fueled economic recovery on a continental scale

• Canada's economy begins to improve in mid 1930s as result of new deal

• Cutrial new deal spending 

• Canada's economy slips back into recession- late 1930s

The Great Depression spawned a crisis in liberalism and in free-market economics

• As economy crashes- many questions why this happened

• Was this a result of the system, was the system flawed

• Many canadians consider more novel solutions to economic crisis 

• Political leaders saying to wait it out- economic situation sound

  • Many canadians realize its not- population open to novel ideas 

  • Wanted more govt intervention to bring great depression to end- more involvement of ottawa in the economy

  • See extremism on right and left during the depression- ppl questioning status quo now  

Prime Minister King was replaced by Conservative R.B. Bennett in 1930

• Bennett said this is a problem and we need to deal with it (why he was elected)

• Conservative party back in power with majority govt 

• Bennett lanches make work projects 

• Bennett raise tariffs against american goods - brings canadian tariffs to high level (never been so high before)

• Bennett- Float an imperial reciprocity scheme - create a level of coherence out of british empire 

• Imperial reciprocity fails- Bennett too wedded to national policy 

• Fed govt invests in back to the land schemes 

• General fear during depression of unemployed single men -first people cut are female employees, then unmarried men 

• Unmarried men causing surge in crime, and fear they fall prey to communism - embrace subversion - bennett afraid of this 

  • In turn he creates work camps in northern canada run by the army for unemployed single men - fed/housed/pay 20 cents a day for road work infrastructure - not obligatory to go 

  • Many single unmarried men homeless so good option 

  • Punishment severe/military discipline 

  • Bennett cuts national defence budget but gives military job to supervise young men 

• Depression just gets worse- bennetts schemes not working 

• Bennett attempts to expand fed govt role but launching his own new deal 

• Unemployment insurance scheme

  • Shot down by courts

• Central bank to manage Canadian dollar

  • Long term legacy of his

• Measures put in place too little too late, voted out of office 1935

• King spared the depression

  • Bennett associated w depression

  • Conservatives voted in when there are economic problems

King returned to power in 1935 and began to engage in heavy deficit spending

• Bennett also engaged in deficit spending but not on same scale 

• Welfare policies to stabilize economy, preserve capitalism (the system)

  • Canadians might turn to socialism if this doesn't work

• Establishment of social programs need centralized system

  • Ottawa, federal gov needs more power

• Federal system less centralized until 1930s

  • Growth in powers

• English speaking Canadians in Ontario are suspicious of provincial autonomy

  • Want more power given to federal gov

  • Only they could advance social progress

• Social affairs should be under federal control

• French speaking: social affairs should remain under provincial control

• Alberta: resistance to federal power

Led by Maurice Duplessis, the Union nationale was swept to power in Quebec

• Power in 1936 

• National union 

• Repackaged version of old quebec conservative party 

• Uses depression to repackage self as reformist party 

• Reforms to tackle depression

• Hydro electric sector under provincial control - from private to public 

• Fails to deliver on most of these promises once he receives power 

• Devotes mandate to fighting PM Kings plan and left wing ideologies 

In Alberta, an obscure economic doctrine known as social credit was championed by William Aberhart, a fiery preacher

• Radio show personality (religious radio show)

• Social credit as solution to depression and forms political party 

• Until 1940s Alberta one of canada's poorest provinces 

• Argued that jews/financial establishment = why are you poor, bc banks/insurance companies run by jews all working together to prevent people from tapping into wealth

  • Solution: Govt to step in to issue monthly social dividend to make up for false scarcity 

The federal government and the courts blocked Aberhart’s repeated attempts to print money

• Social credit shifts program to cutting expenses/limiting govt role in economy 

• Desire for reform in alberta on the right 

Right-wing extremism held some attraction in Depression-era Canada

• Few canadians drawn to facism 

• Anti-semitism raises- prejudice against immigrants/jews surge 

• See communism gain some ground during depression as well 

• Soviet union unaffected 

• Threat of communism -minimal but doesn't prevent leaders from acting against it 

Founded in 1932, the Cooperative Commonwealth Federation (CCF) outlined its vision for a socialist Canada in the 1933 Regina Manifesto

• CCF forerunner of today's democratic party (todays NPC party)  

• Regina- political platform for next 20 years 

• Call for nationalization of key industries like banks - belief to be brought under federal control 

• End for protectionism- western prairie farmers party (rural issues)

• Success in saskatchewan 

• PM king scared for rise of CCF - liberal party shrink and politics in canada will be conservative/labour party

• King adopts some of CCF measures- take away their popularity- family allowances 

• CCF indirect role of canada's post war welfare state

• 1944- CCF achieve power provincially in saskatchewan

The Great Depression weakened western democracy and enabled the rise of fascism

• Seek to rearm and expand german rike and eliminate political appoints/jews 

• Put germany back on feet very aggressively 

By and large, Canadians supported the appeasement of Hitler and Mussolini in the 1930s

• Italy invades ethiopia- no major response

• Germany annexes austria - no major response

• Canadians support british appeasement of germany 

The Second World War was the costliest conflict in human history

• Invasion of poland- led to this

• Hilter wants to tip balance of power in germany's favor - british/france don't accept this 

• Claimed 50 million lives 

• Set stage for cold war- begins in 1945

• Canada plays key role in WW2- summer of 1940 when france collapsed and summer of 1941 when france invades soviet union 

• British most important ally- canada, US is neutral until late 1941

• Britain survives

Canada provided Britain with the troops, arms, and food to resist the Nazi onslaught in 1940-1941

• Canadian arm forces very small 

• PM Bennett did defence cuts in 1930s

• Now armed forces grow rapidly again 

• 1945- canada is worlds 3rd largest naval power and 4th largest air power 

Canadians forces saw action in every theatre

• Battle of britain -RCAF  

• Italian campaign 

• Normandy landings 

• Invasion of france

• Liberation of belgium/holland 

• U Boats sink ships into gulf of saint laurence 

• Bring prosperity/term oil to canada 

Industrial growth and military service brought the return of full employment and an end to the Depression

• Depression ends with onset of war 

• Young men/women that entered arm services - fed govt converts economy to wartime production 

• Fed govt takes control of the economy that it didnt in WW1

• Growth of state power in canada

• Textile industries- uniforms

• Automobile- military vehicles

• Ottawa makes all of canada serve war effort 

• War enhances canada's industrial base 

• By 1945- canada is an industrial society - industry driving force behind economy

• Housing shortage in canada during war- little housing built during great depression 

• Labour shortage as result of mobilization 

Women played a considerable role in wartime industry

• Steel, car industry 

• 43,000 women serve auxiliary roles 

• Air force service for women 

The wartime employment of women undermined traditional gender roles

• Women driving trucks

• Nurses overseas

• emergency/temporary measures

• Sets stage for significant changes post war year for gender changes 

• Federal govt becomes involved in housing in 1940s 

  • Federal govt very little involvement prior to this 

During the war, Canada was a command economy and a less-than-liberal democracy

• The National Resource Mobilisation Act of 1940 mobilised both manpower and physical/human resources 

  • Impose conscription 

  • Did Not require conscripts for overseas 

  • Domestic- bermuda/alaska/newfoundland- conscripts in one of 3 places (bermuda hopefully)

• The government ruled increasingly through orders in council 

  • Fed govt can take a law, give to governor gen to sign and its a law (doesnt have to pass through parliament)

• The War Measures Act allowed the federal government to curb civil liberties, censor the press, and intern opponents 

  • Displace BC’s japanese community -deemed a threat to national security (after Pearl Harbour) 

  • German/italian canadians arrested- only individuals while japanese as a group

  • Canada harsher with own japanese community 

  • Sweeping powers form govt- telling ppl what to eat/read/arresting people  

• Govt driving force behind economic economy

• Canada- less than liberal democracy 

• WW2- govt rationed food- established various production boards - wage/price controls to ensure wages/prices would not go up during the war 

Centralists and advocates of government intervention used the war as a pretext to increase the power of the federal government

• Periods of crisis- use it to advance pre-existing agenda 

  • War- pretext for this to happen

• Employment insurance- constitutional amendment- unconstitutional since provincial pejorative - fed govt creates it - 1941

• Canadians more open to govt becoming more involved in their lives (due to great depression)

• 3.2% 1944 to 37.7% - spent by federal govt- increased its power and size during the war

The most significant wartime crisis was centred around the issue of conscription
for overseas military service

• Domestic service - whether canadians conscripted for overseas 

• Issue of conscription arose even before canada entered conflict 

• If canada entered war- immediately lead to conscription like WW1- french felt this 

• English speaking canadians- feel need to enter conflict as well 

King pledged not to impose conscription for overseas military service

• If canada enters conflict- promises no conscription 

• King had no choice bc political powerbase was quebec- faced with national unity crisis 

• Support for war now high in french speaking canada 

French Canadians volunteered in large numbers, but were under-represented in the armed forces

• Want to help Britain- why many fight - if britain stayed out of war, we wouldn't have entered it 

• Underrepresented in airforce/navy 

• If dot speak english- they dont want you 

• Women's auxiliary service- have to speak english  

• Some branches dont want french canadians 

King was under intense pressure to send the NRMA ‘zombies’ overseas

• Force french canadians to do their part 

• NRMA zombies- these conscripted for domestic service- soldiers but dont fight 

• PM in difficult situation- english speaking opinion in favour of sending overseas but frech speaking against 

In 1942, King decided to call a plebiscite asking Canadians to deliver the government from its promise not to impose conscription for overseas service

• Since quebec is his powerbase, decides to do this 

• If situation requires it, will send NRMA, but if it doesnt he wont

Quebec voted a resounding NO in the 1942 plebiscite, but the rest of Canada voted to deliver the government from its pledge

• Overall a yes vote

• King amends NRMA 

• 1944- when the military situation is difficult in europe then king sends conscripts overseas

  • Does nothing then sends some 

King prudently managed the issue of conscription

• Managing conscription issue more prudently then Borden had 

The postwar years witnessed prosperity and growth

• War ends in 1945

• Demand for canadian exports in europe/US 

• Economy on war-footing- war ends but defence spending associated with war carries over to post-war years due to cold war

A massive oil deposit was discovered in Leduc, Alberta

• Usher in period of petroleum driven wealth for alberta

• Becomes one of canada's richest provinces after being one of the poorest 

• Resource and manufacture sector growing 

• Growth in manufacturing helping to further industrialization and urbanization 

Hundreds of thousands of immigrants entered Canada during the postwar years

• Immigration surges during post-war years- from europe and refugees fleeing war/communism 

• 1940s/50s- feds turn blind eye to immigrants that served nazi clause

• Racialized immigrants discouraged from entering country 

• Admit large numbers of racialized ppl in late 60s 

Canada experienced a significant baby boom during the postwar years

• Baby bust in 1930s 

• During war uncertainty- affected birth rate

• Pent up expectations- get released 

• Higher proportion surviving to adulthood- infant mortality rate drops in 1940s/50s due to improvement in med sci 

• Created largest/most powerful generation in history 

Children were at the centre of social discourse and were a significant force behind economic growth

• Post war years- child centered era 

• Pent up expectation that leads to baby boom 

• Changes in how children are raised 

• Parents urged to be more understanding/affectionate of children- treat them as individuals 

• Corporal punishment frowned upon - importance of not spoiling children 

The 1950s saw the rise of adolescence as a social construct

• Teenage culture in 1960s 

• Many canadian parents born in early 20th century felt their youth sacrificed to economic depression 

• Parents wanted society to change so their children had a better life then they did 

• Teenagers viewed as older kids then young adults 

Between 1945 and 1960, the number of students in Canada doubled

Women’s participation in the workforce began to grow again in the late 1940s

• Greater access to education- fuel women in the workforce 

The postwar growth in wages and social programmes fuelled consumerism

• Canadians enter a world of consumerism 

• World of wants now instead of needs 

• Canadians buying cars, t.v 

Broadcast television came to Canada in 1952

• Plays role in cultural and social change 

Car ownership became generalised in the 1950s

• Growth of suburbs - before reserved for wealthy people 

Suburban culture emerged in the 1950s

• Growth on a scale that would have been impossible before

• Rural isolation and less crowding 

• Lives become more individualistic, centered on the family- changes in how canadians live and relate to each other 

In spite of rapid economic growth, wealth was poorly distributed during the postwar years

• Atlantic region- per captia income below canadas 

• 1955- 33% below canadian average since canada acquired NF- canadas poorest province

English was the language of business in Quebec 

Nationalist rhetoric in Quebec was becoming increasingly secular

• Separatism starts to explode 

Neo-nationalism was criticised by a group of young intellectuals who came of age during the postwar years

• Cite libre journal- question validity of nationalism - want new liberalism 

• Leading figure is pierre trudeau 

• Shifts happening- dont only impact quebec but also all of canada

In 1945, the federal government began to dismantle its war machine

• Restrictions on economy lifted

• Back to civilian life 

• Fed govt needs to play greater role in society - starts to give up lot of powers it held during war 

Key elements of the welfare state were established by the federal government in the postwar years

• Established in 1950s/60s

• Old age pensions- expanded in 1940s/50s

• Expand on education/health care

• establish hospital insurance

• Forces provinces to provide free hospital care - led to system we have today

• Health care/education- national significance 

• Fed govt becoming glorified administrator of lighthouses/post offices- want them more involved in health care/education  

Federal equalisation payments were instituted in 1957

• Redistributes fed funds to allow poorer provinces to provide education/social services thats on par with canadian average -federal program 

• 1982 written into constitution 

Quebec premier Duplessis fought tooth and nail to prevent federal involvement in education, healthcare, and social affairs

• Remains provinical responsibility today- quebec fought this at every term

Louis Saint-Laurent governed Canada from 1948 to 1957

• Liberals determined to grow power of fed govt

The Liberals strove to make Canadian independence fully concrete

• Put end to recourse of privy council 

• Highest court of appeal becomes- supreme court 

• Play role in creation of UN

At the end of the war, London announced that Newfoundlanders and Labradorians would be called to determine their future

Voters were given three choices in the first referendum on Newfoundland’s future

• the return to responsible government as it had existed in 1933

• the continuance of commission government

• confederation 

  • Wants them to join confederation 

  • Catholics favour responsible govt

  • Protestants favour confederation - won 

The promise of social programmes and transfer payments tipped the scales in favour of confederation

• Many NF tired of poverty - promise of prosperity - NF joins 

The Cold War began shortly after the Second World War

• US and soviet union emerge 

• Other powers weakened/destroyed 

Igor Gouzenko provided the RCMP with the details of a vast Soviet spy ring operating in Canada

• Canadians afraid of communism 

Canada was a founding member of NATO, and Canadian troops fought in the Korean War

In 1957, Canada and the United States formed NORAD to integrate their air defences

Week 12: An Era of Change 

The 1960s was a decade of great change throughout Canada

• Govt more involved in lives of Canadians 

• Many discarded traditional values

• Economic growth fairly steady 

• Canadas birth rate dropped as baby boom halted in early to mid 1960s 

• Baby bust begins

Youth culture dominated during the 1960s

• Baby boomers start to become of age 

• Oldest baby boomers reached late teens and new unis built in Canada

• Deep cultural change -Sexual and social conventions upside down

• Drug use, esp marijuana use became common 

• Youth of 1960s reject values of parents generation- organized religion/traditional gender relations 

• Church attendance rates dropped

• Gay rights movements 

A new feminism emerged and began to contest patriarchal assumptions

• Second wave of feminism rejected idea that men/women should play complementary roles in society 

• Contribute to great changes regarding the status of women 

• Access to education was widened for women 

• Decriminalization of abortion  

• Fed govt make divorces easier to obtain 

• Changes brought into place by liberal party

Conservative John Diefenbaker formed a majority government in 1958

• Liberals were in power for 22 years and were weakened by scandals 

• Canadians viewed liberals as arrogant and too close to US/american foreign policy 

• Conservatives now back in power - minority govt then maintain majority govt

• Growth in federal power and the welfare state - fear diefenbaker would erase all this

• Hospital insurance, canadian bill of rights (not constitutionally enshrined) - Diefenbaker 

• Tried to impose vision of canada to embrace britishness and diversity - not popular in Quebec 

The Conservative party dominated Ontario provincial politics during the postwar years

• Diefenbaker- support from prairies and ontario 

• Conservative party brings in many social programs- socialized medicare 

The Diefenbaker government grew increasingly unpopular by 1961-1962

• Support in quebec disappeared 

• Saw as weak leader

The Liberals, led by Lester B. Pearson, returned to power in 1963

Canada and the United States signed the Autopact in 1965

• Integrated north america automobile industry 

• Grants canada a share of this industry 

• Canadian manufactures be integrated in much better way

• Boost southern ontario's economy and saved their car industry 

Saskatchewan enacted socialised healthcare after a bitter debate, and Pearson passed the Medical Act of 1966

• Strike by doctors to block medicare as many were opposed to it at first 

• Passing of medical act- framework for socialized health care 

• Provinces establish socialized health care to receive money 

• Canadas healthcare system born 

The federal government became more involved in the field of culture

• Under pearson fed govt fosters new cand identity- bilingualism, and canada's new role as a peacekeeping middle power - egypt, congo and pypherius 

• Conscious effort to shift canada away from trad forms of identity to identity we are more aware of today 

• Canada profited off vietnam war through gun scales

Prime Minister Pearson adopted Canada’s new flag in 1965 after a lengthy and passionate debate

• Debate is about what canada should be 

• Is the flag going to express diversity or unity - current flag wins 

The new Canada was put on display during the 1967 International Exhibition

• Put new canada on display here 

• Part of its identity 

Pearson brought three prominent Quebec intellectuals to Ottawa: Gérard Pelletier, Jean Marchand, and Pierre Trudeau

• To join his govt - wants more credibility in Quebec 

• Trudeau see as successor to pearson - unknown in english speaking canada to a successor then future PM of Canada

• 1968- trudeau signed in as PM 

Trudeaumania swept the nation in 1968

• Wins landslide election victory

Trudeau passed the Official Languages Act in 1969

• Official bilingualism but not bicultural - trudeau opposed bc dual nationalism in canada -post nationalist vision of canada 

• Trudeau hates nationalism wants canada founded on the individual 

The New Democratic Party was created in 1961

• Appeal to quebecers 

• Party only partially successful 

• Support for NDP decline over decades 

• NDP - social democratic party- like a left liberal party td 

Quebec experienced a ‘Quiet Revolution’ in the 1960s

• Begins when provincial liberal party comes 

Liberal Jean Lesage defeated the Union nationale in 1960

Premier Lesage nationalised hydroelectricity in 1962

• Foster economic advancement of french canadians 

Premier Lesage wished to increase the powers of the Province of Quebec

• Reclaiming powers of fed govt 

• Greater international presence for province of quebec 

• More flexible form of federalism 

• Cooperative federalism 

• Quebec opt out of canada pension plan 

The pace of political change was rapid in part because most of Quebec’s elites supported reform

• Both business associations and labour unions increase state powers 

• Most intellectuals back reform 

• In favour of quieting the revolution 

The Catholic Church acceded to requests for the secularisation of various organisations

Nationalism evolved and grew in 1960s Quebec

• As catholic church retreats from society, catholicism plays role 

• Catholicism was central pillar 

• Neonationals come to dominate nationalist movement and are defining quebecs identity 

• French lang and culture central to quebec identity 

• Quebec views self as nation 

• See quebec nationalism 

• Move towards separatism 

The Rassemblement pour l’indépendance nationale advocated independence and socialism

• First separatist group 

• Two had to go tg 

• Pull 5  ½ % in quebec election- all supporters young ppl

  • Grew very quickly thereafter

René Lévesque created the Parti québécois, a party that advocated sovereignty-association

• Form another separatist liberal party 

• Bring all separatist forces into same tent 

• Only be one separatist party called parti quebecois 

• Sovereignty association 

• Quebec independent but certain ties to canada 

The Front de libération du Québec (FLQ) was formed in 1963

The Acadian Revolution was triggered by Louis Robichaud’s 1960 election victory in New Brunswick

The Atlantic Revolution had its successes and its failures

• Fed funds to boost regions economy and fund local enterprises- mccain frozen fries 

• Failures- provincial govts - buy into mega projects 

• Atlantic fisheries experience expansion 

  • Long been sustained bc it was artisanal 

  • Acquire means to suck all the fish out of the sea 

  • Prepares ground for their collapse 

Indigenous militancy grew during the 1960s

• Right to vote in 1960 for those on reserves 

• Didnt possess the vote prior bc were not considered citizens 

• 60s scoop along with fed attempts to transfer jurisdiction of inuit of northern quebec- ottawa going to relinquish powers during period of intense constitutional centralization- fed govt trying to give up powers 

• Jurisdiction over indians to fed govt but jurisdiction of inuit go to govt of quebec  

• Indigenous military grow after trudeau govt 

• White paper- proposed govt policy - proposed to abolish indian act - fed govt under trudeau did this in 1969- trudeau favoured reform on individual rights rather then collective 

• Turn indigenous reserves into municipalities and abolish indigenous status and end all land claim negotiations- trudeau wanted to do all this (just wants individuals in Canada)

• White paper- policy of assimilation by first nations - indian act recognized their distinctiveness - indian act recognizes indians exist while white paper is like the eraser of indigenous ppl as nations 

• Indigenous resistance forced trudeau to back down 

• Trudeau's argument was dont you want to be regular canadians and they didnt agree - so he drops it 

• Trudeau forced to back down in the face of indigenous resistance

The 1970s began with an episode of terror: The October Crisis

The October Crisis began with the kidnapping of British Trade Commissioner James Cross

FLQ demands included:

• The release of twenty-three jailed FLQ members

• The payment of $500,000 in gold

• An aircraft to take Cross’ kidnappers to a safe haven in Cuba or Algeria 

Soon after the deadline set by the FLQ had expired, the group kidnapped Quebec’s Minister of Labour, Pierre Laporte

Quebec Premier Bourassa asked the federal government to send troops to Quebec to assist police in protecting officials and public buildings

Trudeau’s hatred of Quebec nationalism strengthened his resolve to crush the FLQ

The War Measures Act:

• Declared the FLQ to be an unlawful association 

• Allowed the police to arrest and search suspected terrorists without a warrant

• Allowed the police to hold suspects without charging them or granting them bail

  • Suspends habeas corpus 

• Allowed the police to deny suspects access to a lawyer 

  • Used it in a relatively targeted way 

Dozens of police raids were launched and 497 people were arrested

• Not all 497 people in FLQ - a poet arrested 

Pierre Laporte was killed in retaliation for the invocation of the War Measures Act

James Cross’ release was negotiated in exchange safe for his kidnappers’ passage to Cuba

• Asked to go to cuba or algeria -think friendly 

• Cubans take away their guns/put them on house arrest- they though they were going here to be trained - thought they would be getting help from the cubans 

• Cubans took terrorists as a solid to trudeau 

• FLQ socialists 

Trudeau’s actions during the October Crisis remain controversial

• Govt repression- allowed authorities to crush the FLQ 

• Complete failure- laporte killed and cross found through regular policing 

• Trudeau proved he was willing to negotiate with terrorist 

The main political beneficiary of the FLQ’s suppression was the Parti québécois

• FLQ violence had tainted the Parti quebecois movement - made separatism look violent and radical

• FLQ existence was a problem for mainstream quebec independence movement 

• Bring parti québécois to power is destroying the FLQ 

  • Also public pressure for trudeau to do something  

The Parti québécois won the 1976 Quebec election

• Gained in credibility in 1970s

• Challenge governing liberal party 

• Quebec become independent and maintain certain ties to canada and promise by 1980 to hold referendum 

• Instead govern quebec for several years to show quebec they can govern responsibility 

In 1977, the Parti québécois passed the Charter of the French language (Bill 101)

• Restricted access to english school

• Outlawed english signs

• Strong provisions of francisation of business/public affairs 

  • Redirect generations of immigrant children away from english school and towards french school

  • Argument against independence 

The 1980 referendum asked Quebecers to give the Lévesque government the mandate to negotiate sovereignty-association

• Trudeau electoral defeat gave them opportunity 

• Granting govt to negotiate this  

• Campaign was very nasty 

The turning point in the campaign came after Lise Payette implied that federalist women were ‘Yvettes’

• Character in school textbooks- a good girl, helps with dishes/looks after brother= submission of women 

• Comment she made upset women in quebec - thousands of women mobilized/protested

• Shifted no to sovereignty association 

Prime Minister Trudeau’s promises to reform the Constitution ensured a NO victory

• 1979 losses election and says hes retiring 

• 1980- comes out of retirement and contests the election, comes back to power

• Trudeau takes over the NO campaign - promises constitutional reform - wins vote 

Trudeau had long wished to patriate the Constitution

• Constitutional renewal will grant more power to quebec- interpreted as change quebec would want

• However after referendum campaign- no new powers granted to quebec/any other province 

• 1931 canada becomes formally independent, but didnt become independent with power to control own constitution, instead asked britain to temporarily hold this power - couldnt agree on amendment formula 

• Britain didnt ask to hold onto this power- did it bc we asked them 

• wished to patriate the Constitution- make it a canadian law 

• Only count on support of premiers of ontario/new brunswick - only they backed trudeau - courts deemed this insufficient 

• Trudeau was blocked - fed govt just needed to ask british govt and they had to agree 

• Courts force trudeau to back track on his plan 

• Wants to make canadian law and include charter of rights and freedoms and doesnt want to grant any special powers to the provinces especially Quebec = will destroy canada 

• Trudeau wanted to give rights to all canadians - centered on the individual

• Charter ran against british political tradition - british govt didnt want to pass this

• Trudeau wanted british parliament to change the nature of our constitution - want to control it but also ask britain to put a charter 

• Trudeau knew that once constitution become canadian law- harder to include a charter within the document 

• If he gets the british to do it- will get done 

• 8 premiers that oppose trudeau give him pause - needs substantial provincial support which he gets 

For most amendments, the support of the federal government plus two-thirds of the provinces representing at least 50 percent of Canada’s population is required

• Need 7 provinces out of 10- need at least ontario or quebec to say yes  

• For amendments regarding the monarchy, the Supreme Court, or the amending formula itself, unanimity is required

  • Monarchy abolished through unanimity - all provinces in favour and the federal government 

The 1982 Constitution:

• Contained a charter of rights and freedoms

  • Guaranteeing freedom of speech & religion, official bilingualism, minority education 

• Recognised and protected Aboriginal treaty rights

• Included a notwithstanding clause, which would allow governments to override certain charter rights

  • At heart of compromise between trudeau/premiers 

  • Limitations to its use 

  • Our constitution before 1982 was unwritten - now freedoms/rights formally written down in constitution 

With all the provinces on side except Quebec, Britain agreed to patriate the Canadian Constitution

• Queen signed 

• Turned from british to canadian law that got transferred 

• When canada became fully independent 

The 1982 Constitution created a new political dynamic in Canada

• Parliament supreme in passing legislation 

• Older constitution was very flexible 

• Constitution has to be flexible- however todays is more american style- harder to be flexible with 

Canada’s birthrate continued to decline in the 1970s

• Baby boom gives way to baby bust 

• Decline - tied to decline in religious observances and traditional values

Canada’s immigration policy was overhauled in the late 1960s and early 1970s

• Canadas immigration policy favoured europeans as immigrants for canada 

• Non europeans could enter canada but series of rules for those who didnt come from canada

• Colour blind system- point system- points for speaking english/having degree

• Causes huge shift in sources of canadas immigration 

• International immigration 

Trudeau formally rejected biculturalism and declared Canada to be a multicultural state

• 1982- enshrined into constitution

• Expressed trudeau's distaste for british/french canadian nationalism 

• Weld non british immigrants to that party

• In quebec multiculturalism poorly received - rejection of what province wanted 

• Canadians of non british/french origin pleased

Trudeau sought to redefine Canada’s place in the world

• Lessen canadas dependency on US by drawing closer to europe/global south 

• Failed and canada grew more dependent economically on US

Canada entered a period of protracted economic difficulty in the 1970s

• Related to 1973 opec crisis 

• Signaled end of era of cheap oil/gas 

• Energy more expensive - major cause of inflation 

• Rise in cost oil/gas- impact on ontario's automobile sector which was tied to US sector- trouble facing competition against Asia 

The North American economy was suffering from stagflation

• stagflation= economic stagnation coupled with high inflation 

• Purchasing power of canadian dollar dropped by 52% 

• Spiral of inflation occur 

• 1977- unemployment levels reached 10% in every province 

• First signs appear that canada's industries losing competitive edge 

Many of Trudeau’s policies worsened the economic situation

• Federal deficits ballooned out of control

  • No effort to control budget - stoked inflation 

• The Foreign Investment Review Agency made Canada less attractive to American investment 

  • Created this 

• Wage and price controls were unpopular and ineffective

  • Means to control inflation

Led by Joe Clark, the Conservatives won a minority government in the 1979 federal election

• Brief interlude of conservative govt

Shortly after being brought back into office, Pierre Trudeau created the National Energy Program

• Energy self sufficiency for canada

• Attempts to control cost of energy by making canada self sufficient -difficult to export albertan oil/gas -subsidized energy cost at expense of alebertan producers 

• Stoke western anger towards ottawa in the 80s 

Week 12- Into the New Millennium, 1984-2006 - March 26th 

The 1980s were a period of economic difficulty throughout the West

• Textile sector struggling to adjust due to competition with Asia 

• Unemployment rates soared 

By 1983-1984, the Trudeau government was running out of steam

The Conservative party had become reinvigorated under the leadership of Brian Mulroney

• Popularity in quebec - bc wants to bring quebec into constitution with honor 

The Conservatives pulled off a stunning election victory in 1984

• Conservatives received over 50% of popular vote 

• Had a crushing majority 

Mulroney set about creating a new climate for business and investment

• National energy program- affordable oil/gas to consumers of canada - done at albertas expense - canadian energy self contained sector - forced to sell oil/gas to central Canada at a discount - Mulroney does away with this 

• Didn't dismantle welfare state as many feared 

• Drawing canada's economy closer to that of US with free trade - Multroney initially skeptical of free trade - switched his stance after election - business community wanted him to consider free trade

• Not promise free trade but instead promised to repair damage between Canadian/American relationship - bc Trudeau's relationship with Castro damaged this 

• Mulroney govt trade talks with US - hard fought negotiation 

• Mid 1980s- vast majority of goods crossed border not subjected to tariffs - almost at edge of free trade 

• For Canada/US- free trade as preventative measure - already achieved it but want to lock it in with more expensive agreement - americans signed for unfettered access to canadian resources (oil/gas) 

The 1988 Free Trade Agreement covered more than just trade

• Tariffs would be eliminated over a ten-year period

• Canadian cultural industries were granted an exemption

• Controls on foreign investment were loosened

• Corporations from both nations were granted access to government contracts

  • American corp can bid on Canadian contract and vice versa 

  • Free trade agreement - resource sharing - has to be available to companies in both Canada/US- prevent Canada from imposing another law like national energy program 

• A dispute resolution mechanism was established

  • Internal court for trade disputes - formal body designed to settle trade disputes - mulroney keen on this- depolitize our relationship with US

  • Mulroney didnt have mandate - liberals believed free trade would destroy canada 

The 1988 free trade vote was one of Canada’s most divisive elections

• Liberals threatened to use senate to block agreement 

• One of canada's most nasty elections - referendum on canada's relationship with US 

• Canada founded on social programs 

• Mulroney argue- Canada's existential threat was having our economy steadily sink and our standard of living drop - thus free trade would be good for the economy 

• Most english speaking Canadians voted against it while french Canadians speaking supported it 

Support from Quebec and Alberta was crucial to the Tory victory

• Anti free trade vote split between two parties 

• Mulroney wins- Conservatives won majority of seats - got almost every seat in Quebec/Alberta 

• Free trade enacted 

Free trade produced layoffs in the short-term, but fuelled growth in the long-term

• North american economy dipping in/out of recession 

• After 3-5 years transition - free trade/weak cand dollar- fuel investment and economic growth 

• Short term- free trade harmed economy but long term was good for the economy 

• Lumber industry did not benefit from free trade 

The 1993 NAFTA agreement extended free trade to Mexico

• 1998 agreement, made minor changes and added mexico 

• Free trade didnt not result in extinction of canadian support programs

The Liberal party eventually came to embrace free trade

• Once in power went back to support it 

• Later on did everything to save NAFTA during trump administration  

The struggle for constitutional renewal re emerged after Mulroney’s landslide 1984 victory

• Rested in part on massive support from quebec - quebec turned back on liberal party after trudeau's 1984 retirement 

• Mulroney's election revived hope that constitution could be renewed 

• 1985- free trade with US and new round of negotiations 

The 1987 Meech Lake Accord would have:

• allowed provinces to opt out of federal programmes in provincial areas of jurisdiction with full compensation

• guaranteed provincial input into the nomination of senators and Supreme Court justices

• granted greater veto power to the provinces over constitutional amendments

• granted the provinces more power over immigration

• recognised Quebec as a ‘distinct society’

  • Fully participate in canadian affairs while remaining distinctive 

  • Failed but remains important to understand - we live in post meech lake accord world

  • Separatists opposed meech lake 

  • Proposed change to constitution 

Pierre Trudeau came out of retirement and launched a crusade against the Meech Lake Accord

• Diminish some of his 1982 legacy 

• Argued it will destroy Canada 

The collapse of the Meech Lake Accord can be attributed to several factors:

• The Mulroney government became increasingly unpopular in the late 1980s

  • Mulroney selling Canada out to its enemies 

  • Did not deal with constitutional demands of other provinces/groups 

• Many Canadians viewed the agreement as undemocratic and overly centred on Quebec

  • Quebec shouldnt have any special status, every province the same 

• The distinct society clause was particularly unpopular

• The Quebec government passed a bill notwithstanding the Charter of Rights and Freedoms in order to reestablish key provisions of Bill 101

• The ratification period was too long and several of the premiers present at Meech Lake in 1987 were no longer in office by 1990

The collapse of the Meech Lake Accord destabilised Canadian politics and reinvigorated the Quebec independence movement

• Govt of newfoundland/manitoba refused- deal collapsed/expired 

  • Required unanimity- not achieved so failed 

• Support for quebec independence - 70% 

  • Everyone not an english quebecor or really old responded 

• Quebec liberal party- briefly flirted with idea of sovereignty association 

The Reform Party and the Bloc québécois would eventually claim much of the Progressive Conservative party’s support

• Collapse because of Meechs failure

• Advocated senate reform, made senate like the US senate - make it equal 

• End to quebecs domination of Canadian politics 

• Time for Canada to be run by someone not from quebec 

• Only reform party saying no, there support grows rapidly 

• Separatist political party formed at federal level - conservative and one liberal  

• Western and french canadian wing broken off from party 

• Progressive conservative party going to collapse and whole party system getting reordered 

The 1992 Charlottetown Accord tried to reconcile the constitutional demands of Quebec with those of the rest of Canada

• Agreement rejected in national referendum - western canada/quebec voted no 

The Canadian party system collapsed during the 1993 federal election

• Kim Campbell - first and only women PM

• Mulroney retires months before and leaves Kim 

• Kim tries to save progressive conservative party but complete wipe out- only 2 seats - wiped off the map 

• NDP almost collapses as well - does poorly 

• Bloc québécois- sweeps and becomes official in Ottawa 

• Liberals sweep ontario/atlantic province 

• House of commons- series of regional blocks 

• Liberal party dominate in canadian politics for next decade 

The collapse of the Progressive Conservative party would ensure a decade of Liberal dominance

• Jean Chrétien 

• Reorders canadian politics 

• Bloc québécois - does not wish to form government 

Indigenous militancy came to a head during the summer of 1990 in Oka, Quebec

• Summer where meech lake accord failed - crisis time 

• Expand golf course on an ancestral burial ground 

• Mohawk warriors set up barricades around burial 

• Resulted in shootout that left one police officer dead 

The crisis escalated further after the Quebec government requested the intervention of the Canadian Forces

• Negotiations prevailed 

• Contested land purchased by federal government 

Another violent confrontation between Indigenous protesters and police occurred at Ipperwash Provincial Park in 1995

• Indigenous protester killed- with ontario provincial police

• Hostility towards first nations motivated ontario provincial police's actions 

The Donald Marshall case revealed the systemic racism of Canada’s criminal justice system

• Migma from Nova Scotia 

• Served 18 years for something he didnt do 

• Overhaul of cjs relationship with black/indigenous nova scotians 

Alarming revelations of abuse in residential schools began to surface in the 1990s

• Many canadians aware of what went on in this system 

• Various churches asked to apologize and compensate victims that suffered abuse in these schools

• Federal government apologized and compensated victims in 2008 

• Truth and Reconciliation commission

 The Inuit Territory of Nunavut was created in 1999

• Indigenous people granted self government 

• Commissioners represent federal government 

Anger over the collapse of the Meech Lake Accord brought the Parti québécois back into office in Quebec’s 1994 provincial election Jacques Parizeau

• Referendum on sovereignty 

• Wants independence for quebec 

Parizeau was forced to accept a referendum on sovereignty-association by Bloc Québécois

leader Lucien Bouchard

• Two dominant figures in quebec's independence movement 

• Sovereignty association - parizeau and independence -bouchard 

• Bouchard- reflected stance of millions of quebecers 

Momentum was on the YES side

• Federalists in quebec began to panic 

• The no to sovereignty to association- massive rally 

The NO side won the 1995 referendum by a margin of less than 1 per cent

• Support for sovereignty began to decline rapidly 

• Clarity act- organizing with scottish government 

• Framework for succession of a province  

• Most quebeccors didnt say much about it 

• Independence movement declined since 1990s - young people dont see the point now - rather its middle age/older that support 

The Liberal party benefited from the breakdown of Canada’s traditional party system in the 1990s

• Division of right wing vote- challenge for liberals 

In late 2003, Canada’s right-wing parties merged into a new Conservative party

• Reform party and progressive conservative party fuse and create conservative party 

• Political scandal weaken- paul martin who comes to power when liberal party declines 

• Martin comes to power in 2003 - in charge of weakened govt -Holds onto power in 2004 and achieves minority govt 

Canadians elected a minority Conservative government in early 2006

The information revolution has driven social change in recent decades

• Shift in industrialization 

• Computers became present in govt industry in 1960s/70s - large and used to compile data bases 

• Played a role in corporate and state growth 

• Change how govt and industry function

• 3 stages 

  • 1) Emergence of Personal computers in offices/schools/households - generate new modes of work 

  • 2) Personal computers connected to internet (wealthy/geeky ppl access)

    • social interaction, education and the workplace 

  • 3) Emergence of smartphones - makes internet ubiquitous in lives of Canadians 

• Leisure and entertainment structured online as social interaction 

• Political debate reshaped by internet/social networks - facilitated political convos across borders 

• Social media granted political voice to multiple users - great democratic experiment 

• Revolutionized consumption 

• News sources declined significantly 

• Third industrial revolution 

  • First revolution -steam

  • Second- electricity 

The social changes that began in the mid-twentieth century deepened in recent decades

• Church attendance declined -especially low in quebec - 1998 linguistic model of education now because of this 

• Marriage rate declined significantly in 1970s 

• Early 2000s - common to see grown children remain in parents homes after completing education 

• Suicide rates increase steadily in 1970s- especially among indigenous and in quebec 

The Canadian population has been steadily aging since the 1970s

• Worse now 

• Sharp decline in birth rate has destabilized canada's demographic structure 

• Baby boom generation steadily moved into retirement/old age in 2000s - begin to place great strain on canada's social safety net 

• Crisis related to large number of elderly people 

• Indigenous canadians only group in canada to experience population growth due to natural growth (births) and not just immigration 

• Increase in life expectancy during post war years 

• Immigration rates soared in recent decades 

Canada welcomed millions of immigrants, partly to offset the effects of an aging population

• Largest groups come from Asia, south and east 

The environment became a significant political issue in the 1980s and 1990s

• Acid rain 

• By 1990s- climate change biggest environment fight 

• Concept of human driven climate change and need to deal w it 

• US refuse accord 

• oil/gas development - is to blame for canada's poor environmental record 

Gay rights became a significant political issue in the 1980s and 1990s

• Greater research into aids/aids patients 

• Mainstream acceptance increase significantly in canada 

• Canadas courts call on govt to amend legislation to allow gay marriage 

• Martin govt was not keen on gay marriage

• Ppl in conservative party- use non withstanding clause to pull back gay marriage -didnt happen

The 1991 collapse of the Soviet Union ushered in a new period in Canadian defence and foreign policy

• Able to make deep military cuts 

The Canadian Forces were sent on a number of missions in the 1990s

• Mulroney govt to send forces to participate in first gulf war

• Peacekeeping missions in somalia and yugoslavia 

Canadians were shocked by the 9\11 attacks, and Canada and the United States drew closer in the months that followed

• Canadian special forces to afghanistan

• Participated in removing taliban regime but didn't want to be involved in the invasion of Iraq 

Canada played a key role in the War in Afghanistan

• Most canadians against canada fighting in Afghanistan 

The 9\11 attacks heightened concerns regarding international terrorism in Canada

• Canadian govt heighten terror crack down in 2000s 

• American govt leads on canada to get tough on terroism 

The burdens associated with deficit spending were becoming increasingly evident

• Uncontrolled structural deficit spending 

• Spending more money then taking in - serious problem affecting govt credit rating 

• Two ways to deal

  • cut services in spending or raise taxes (decided to raise taxes - GST)

Premier Mike Harris championed a ‘Common Sense Revolution’

• Deep cuts to education, social services and health care in ontario 

The Canadian economy experienced significant structural adjustment

• Industrial sector continues to decline 

• Canadian economy late 1990s not doing well- difficult to adjust to rising competition with asia

Atlantic Canada was dealt a severe blow when cod stocks collapsed because of over-fishing

• Newfoundland and labrador especially 

• Bring fed govt to impose moratorium over cod fishing 

• Economic and culture blow to the region 

April 2nd - Contemporary Canada

Canadians elected a minority Conservative government in early 2006

• 2003 merger that created conservative party- 2006 minority victory - social credit and the reform party - new conservative party - different party from the one that existed in the 1980s 

• Oil industry 

• Quebec absent from power 

• Victory marked power shift in canadian society - shift in power and wealth 

• Harper governed on center right - centrist in his own way 

• Harper- making canada less dependent on the US 

• Initially harper inability to maintain majority govt- obtains minority govt in 2006 

• Conservatives win majority govt 

• First majority govt in canada since 1917 without appreciable support from Quebec 

  • Party now get elected without appreciable support from quebec 

Economic growth and consumer spending were fueled by speculation and easy credit

• Increase in housing values = fueled by easy credit rather then steady economic growth 

  • Overconsumption and easy credit 

• Low interest rates/rampant consumerism = millions of canadians in debt along with housing cost and university education 

• Economic bubble - burst in 2008 - mortgage crisis = into recession (great recession) 

• Financial crisis - canada affected, decline in american consumer spending = immediate effect in canada - 70-80% of exports to US

• Free trade boosted canadas exports to US 

• High oil/gas prices - insulated canada from worst of great depression 

• Bank of canada injected funds into financial system- prevent deflation/economic collapse 

  • Stock market crash - various banks inject money

• Bank of canada lowered interest rates substantially 

Quantitative easing and low interest rates prevented a deep recession, but they also stoked asset inflation

• Recession occurred, referred to as technical recession - no economic collapse 

• harper= deficit spending, bank of canada in quantitative easing and lowers interest rates 

• Interest rate on mortgage- 5-10% in 6-7 range historically 

• Before 2008- on low end

• After 2008- 2-3 half % and stays here 

• Quantitative easing combined with low interest rate = two significant asset inflation 

• 2008/2009 - more money in system and interest rates dropping 

• Cost of housing grew to unsustainable levels - very rapid 

• Housing became driving force behind economic growth in canada 

• Harper- wedge politics- capitalize on issue to split opponents or canadian population in way advantageous to his party 

• By 2015- tories worn out after 9 years in govt - hope to cling to power/fear generated by NDP govt -true alternative to conservatives 

A resurgent Liberal party led by Justin Trudeau swept to power promising “sunny ways.”

• Liberal party came from behind - won majority govt in 2015 

• Canadians continued to embrace notions of identity and nationhood 

• Many canadians attached to vision of canada - expresses self in liberal party 

• Trudeau sunny ways lost its appeal 

  • Loses majority 

  • More time as minority govt then majority 

• Trudeau promised to reform the voting system- rank the parties 

• Political caucasus made up of senators 

• Liberal senators no longer part of caucasus 

• Trudeau sought to remove partisanship from the senate

• Reform party to reform the senate -couldn't change how it functioned so appointed enough senators to keep it running - fills it with non-partisan appointees

• Senate more independent- slowed flow of legislation senators subject legislation to much more scrutiny 

• Significant push back against some of trudeau's significant policies 

The discovery of unmarked graves at the sites of former residential schools has brought new

attention to the conditions that prevailed in these institutions

• Indigenous canadians/scholars not surprised to learn abt these discoveries - shock to average canadian = soul searching 

• Federal govt- transferring jurisdiction to first nations 

The election of Donald Trump threatened NAFTA

• Shaped trudeau's govt (along with covid-19)

• Trudeau resisted urge in political posturing while trump in office 

• Trump critic of free trade/tear up NAFTA 

• Trend towards economic globalization - began losing steam - free trade zone of the americans - long standing fears in latin america regarding american domination 

• Free trade zone that falls apart 

• NAFTA doesnt survive trump presidency -replaced by USMCA

  • Carries over most of NAFTAs clauses but also some new clauses limiting canadian/mexico access and increases US access to dairy market

  • Sunset clause- has an end date  - could last forever 

  • Dispute settlement mechanism 

  • NAFTA - never a popular policy in the US 

The COVID-19 pandemic will forever alter Canadian society

• Not a “black swan” event 

• Event predictably occuring 

• Global response to the pandemic - surprising

• Trudeau slow to react to pandemic, difficult to ascertain scope of the problem 

• Quebec govt acted forcibly to contain the outbreak -which other provinces follow

• Fed govt closed canada's borders to non-citizens 

• Deaths surpassed 50,000 in canada 

  • Covid crisis- defining event for canada's youth 

• Acceptance of vaccine - limited scale of death  

The economic disruption brought about by the COVID-19 pandemic will have a lasting effect

on Canada

• Far more lasting effects then 2008/2009

• Massive federal spending averted disaster on same scale of great depression

• Govt actions at home/abroad stoked inflation 

• Fear of deflation, major recession/depression- actions by govt stoke inflation 

The COVID pandemic accelerated many recent social and economic trends

• Wild spending spree -abetted by bank of canada 

• Second round of quantitative easing 

• Low interest 

• Structural deficits not a problem 

• Emergence of new theory- governance can spend like mad since possess all tools to control currency/interest rates 

  • Just bc have tools doesn't mean you will engage with it 

• Okay to spend like crazy during covid since govt had means - not the case = inflation running at highest level and canadians facing debt crisis 

• Information revolution

  • Online shopping/learning 

  • Working from home 

• Adimizsantion of society

  • People lonely- isolating 

• Limits of socialized medicine 

  • Wait times in hospitals/canada suffering from mental health crisis 

• social/political tensions 

  • Series erosion of trust in elites 

  • Trucking protest