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PSYC1010 Test 1 Notes

  1. Psychology 1010: Learning Guide – Module 1

    The History and Scope of Psychology

    What is Psychology?

    • Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes.

    • It applies the scientific method to human thoughts, emotions, and actions.

    • The field integrates elements of biology, philosophy, and social sciences.

    • Focuses on both observable behaviors and internal mental processes (thinking, memory, perception).

    Historical Schools of Thought

    1. Structuralism (Wilhelm Wundt, Edward Titchener)

    • Attempted to analyze the structure of the human mind using introspection.

    • Broke down consciousness into basic elements, similar to how chemistry categorizes elements.

    • Key Idea: Understanding the "what" of mental experiences.

    • Criticism:

      • Too subjective—results varied between individuals.

      • Lacked reliability due to differences in self-reporting.

      • Excluded children and animals from study.

    2. Functionalism (William James)

    • Focused on the function of mental processes and behaviors.

    • Asked why we think, feel, and behave as we do.

    • Inspired by Darwin’s theory of evolution—believed mental functions serve adaptive purposes.

    • Key Idea: Understanding the "why" of mental processes.

    • Criticism:

      • Hard to scientifically measure mental functions.

      • Considered too philosophical, lacking controlled experimental methodology.

    3. Behaviorism (John Watson, B.F. Skinner)

    • Rejected introspection and focused only on observable behavior.

    • Believed behaviors are shaped by conditioning (rewards & punishments).

    • Key Idea: All behaviors are learned through interactions with the environment.

    • Criticism:

      • Ignored mental processes (thinking, memory, emotions).

      • Treated humans as passive learners without considering free will.

    4. Psychoanalytic Psychology (Sigmund Freud)

    • Proposed that behavior is driven by the unconscious mind and childhood experiences.

    • Introduced the concept of id, ego, and superego.

    • Used free association and dream analysis to access the unconscious.

    • Key Idea: Unconscious drives shape behavior.

    • Criticism:

      • Lacked scientific evidence and relied on case studies.

      • Overemphasized sexual and aggressive drives.

    5. Humanistic Psychology (Carl Rogers, Abraham Maslow)

    • Emphasized free will, self-actualization, and personal growth.

    • Argued that humans are inherently good and have the potential for growth.

    • Maslow introduced the Hierarchy of Needs, which suggests we prioritize survival before reaching self-fulfillment.

    • Key Idea: Humans strive for personal growth and fulfillment.

    • Criticism:

      • Difficult to measure scientifically.

      • Considered too optimistic about human nature.

    6. Cognitive Psychology

    • Focuses on mental processes such as perception, memory, and problem-solving.

    • Helped develop cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT).

    • Key Idea: Studies how we think, learn, and remember.

    • Criticism:

      • Ignores emotions and social influences on cognition.

      • Sometimes treats the brain like a computer, oversimplifying complex thought processes.

    Modern Psychological Perspectives

    1. Neuroscience (Biological): Examines brain structures and their influence on behavior.

    2. Evolutionary: Explores how natural selection shaped behaviors.

    3. Behavior Genetics: Studies how genes and environment interact to influence behavior.

    4. Psychodynamic: Focuses on unconscious motives and unresolved childhood conflicts.

    5. Behavioral: Investigates learning through reinforcement and punishment.

    6. Cognitive: Studies how we process, store, and retrieve information.

    7. Social-Cultural: Examines how culture and social interactions shape behavior.

    Key Themes in Psychology

    1. Critical Thinking – Encourages questioning assumptions, analyzing evidence, and considering alternative explanations.

    2. Biopsychosocial Approach – Recognizes that behavior is influenced by biological, psychological, and social-cultural factors.

    3. Two-Track Mind – Explains that information is processed both consciously and unconsciously.

    4. Exploring Human Strengths – Psychology not only studies mental disorders but also focuses on human resilience and well-being.

    Application-Based Multiple Choice Questions

    1. Which historical school of psychology used introspection to analyze the structure of the mind?

      • A) Behaviorism

      • B) Functionalism

      • C) Structuralism

      • D) Psychoanalysis

    2. Which psychological perspective focuses on how we encode, process, store, and retrieve information?

      • A) Behavioral

      • B) Cognitive

      • C) Evolutionary

      • D) Psychodynamic

    3. What is a key criticism of Freud’s psychoanalytic theory?

      • A) It is too focused on childhood experiences.

      • B) It lacks scientific evidence.

      • C) It ignores emotions.

      • D) It focuses too much on social influences.

    4. Which perspective emphasizes the role of environmental influences in shaping behavior?

      • A) Behavioral

      • B) Biological

      • C) Humanistic

      • D) Psychodynamic

    5. Who is known for developing the concept of self-actualization?

      • A) Sigmund Freud

      • B) Carl Rogers

      • C) Abraham Maslow

      • D) B.F. Skinner

    Answer Key

    1. C) Structuralism

    2. B) Cognitive

    3. B) It lacks scientific evidence.

    4. A) Behavioral

    5. C) Abraham Maslow

     

     

     

     

    Psychology 1010: Learning Guide – Module 2

    Research Methods in Psychology

    Why Do Psychologists Use Research?

    Psychologists rely on scientific research rather than intuition, common sense, or personal experiences to study human behavior. The scientific method helps prevent:

    • Hindsight bias – The tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that we "knew it all along."

    • Overconfidence – People often think they know more than they do.

    • Perceiving order in random events – Humans naturally look for patterns, even in random sequences.

    The Scientific Method in Psychology

    Psychologists use the scientific method to test ideas and uncover relationships between variables.

    1. Theory – A broad explanation that organizes observations and predicts outcomes.

    2. Hypothesis – A specific, testable prediction based on a theory.

    3. Operational Definition – A precise statement of how a variable is measured (e.g., defining "happiness" as "smiling frequency").

    4. Replication – Repeating the study with different participants to confirm results.

    Example: A psychologist hypothesizes that exercise improves memory. The operational definition of "exercise" might be "30 minutes of moderate cardio three times a week," and "memory" could be measured by test scores.

    Types of Research Methods

    Psychologists use three main research methods to collect data:

    1. Descriptive Research

    • Used to describe behavior, not explain it.

    • Methods:

      • Case Study: In-depth study of one individual or small group.

        • Strength: Provides detailed information on rare conditions.

        • Weakness: Results may not be generalizable to everyone.

      • Naturalistic Observation: Observing behavior in a natural setting without interference.

        • Strength: Shows real-world behavior.

        • Weakness: Cannot determine cause and effect.

      • Survey & Interview: Self-reported data collected from participants.

        • Strength: Can reach a large sample quickly.

        • Weakness: Participants may lie (social desirability bias).

    2. Correlational Research

    • Measures how two variables relate to each other.

    • Types of Correlations:

      • Positive Correlation (+1.00) – Both variables increase or decrease together (e.g., More studying → Higher grades).

      • Negative Correlation (-1.00) – One variable increases while the other decreases (e.g., More social media use → Less sleep).

      • No Correlation (0.00) – No relationship between variables.

    Example: A study finds a positive correlation between exercise and happiness, meaning people who exercise more tend to report higher happiness levels.

    🔴 Common Misinterpretation: Correlation does not equal causation! Just because two things are related does not mean one causes the other.

    • Example: Ice cream sales and drowning deaths are correlated—but the real cause is hot weather.

    3. Experimental Research

    • Experiments are the only way to determine causation.

    • Researchers manipulate independent variables (IV) and measure dependent variables (DV).

    Key Components of an Experiment

    1. Independent Variable (IV) – The factor that is manipulated (e.g., amount of sleep).

    2. Dependent Variable (DV) – The factor that is measured (e.g., test performance).

    3. Experimental Group – Receives the independent variable.

    4. Control Group – Does not receive the independent variable (serves as a baseline).

    5. Random Assignment – Participants are randomly assigned to groups to reduce bias.

    6. Double-Blind Procedure – Neither participants nor researchers know who is in which group (reduces placebo effect).

    Example: A researcher wants to test if caffeine improves memory.

    • IV: Caffeine intake (none vs. 100mg).

    • DV: Memory test scores.

    • Experimental Group: Receives caffeine.

    • Control Group: Receives a placebo.

    🔴 Common Experimental Biases & How to Reduce Them

    • Placebo Effect: Participants experience changes because they believe they received the treatment. Solution: Use a double-blind study.

    • Demand Characteristics: Participants change behavior because they know they’re being studied. Solution: Keep the study purpose hidden.

    Ethical Considerations in Research

    Psychologists follow ethical guidelines to protect participants from harm.

    APA Ethical Guidelines for Research

    1. Informed Consent – Participants must agree to participate after being informed of potential risks.

    2. Protection from Harm – No physical or emotional harm should occur.

    3. Confidentiality – Personal data must remain private.

    4. Debriefing – After the study, researchers must explain its purpose and any deception used.

    Example: In Milgram’s obedience study, participants were debriefed afterward to explain the real purpose of the experiment.

    Application-Based Multiple Choice Questions

    1. What is the main goal of descriptive research?

      • A) To determine cause and effect

      • B) To manipulate variables

      • C) To describe behavior

      • D) To create a hypothesis

    2. A psychologist conducts a study where they observe preschool children playing and record how often they share toys. What research method is being used?

      • A) Experimental

      • B) Correlational

      • C) Naturalistic observation

      • D) Case study

    3. A study finds that people who get more sleep tend to perform better on memory tests. What type of correlation is this?

      • A) Positive correlation

      • B) Negative correlation

      • C) No correlation

      • D) Experimental relationship

    4. Which research method can determine cause and effect?

      • A) Correlational study

      • B) Naturalistic observation

      • C) Survey research

      • D) Experimental research

    5. Why is random assignment important in an experiment?

      • A) It ensures equal representation of all variables

      • B) It allows researchers to predict results

      • C) It prevents confounding variables from influencing results

      • D) It increases the sample size

    Answer Key

    1. C) To describe behavior

    2. C) Naturalistic observation

    3. A) Positive correlation

    4. D) Experimental research

    5. C) It prevents confounding variables from influencing results 

 

Psychology 1010: Learning Guide – Module 3

Statistical Reasoning in Psychology

Why Do Psychologists Use Statistics?

Psychologists use statistics to analyze, interpret, and communicate research findings. Statistics help distinguish between:

  • Real patterns vs. random chance

  • Meaningful differences vs. insignificant variations

Without statistical analysis, researchers might misinterpret data or overestimate the impact of a variable.

Types of Statistics in Psychology

Psychologists use two types of statistics:

  1. Descriptive Statistics – Summarizing data.

  2. Inferential Statistics – Drawing conclusions from data.

1. Descriptive Statistics – Summarizing Data

Descriptive statistics help organize and summarize collected data.

a) Measures of Central Tendency (What’s the "Typical" Score?)

  1. Mean – The average of a data set.

    • Criticism: Easily skewed by extreme scores (outliers).

    • Example: If five students earn 70, 75, 80, 85, and 100, the mean is 82.

  2. Median – The middle number in an ordered list.

    • Better than the mean when data has outliers.

    • Example: In the dataset [40, 50, 50, 90, 100], the median is 50.

  3. Mode – The most frequently occurring number.

    • Useful when data is categorical (e.g., most common baby names).

    • Example: The mode in the dataset [1, 2, 2, 3, 3, 3, 4] is 3.

b) Measures of Variation (How Spread Out is the Data?)

  1. Range – The difference between the highest and lowest scores.

    • Criticism: Affected by extreme values.

    • Example: Scores of 10, 15, 20, and 95 give a range of 85, which misrepresents data spread.

  2. Standard Deviation (SD) – Measures how much scores vary from the mean.

    • Lower SD → Scores are close to the mean (less variation).

    • Higher SD → Scores are widely spread.

    • Example: If test scores have a low SD, most students score close to the average.

  3. Normal Distribution (Bell Curve)

    • In a normal distribution, most scores fall near the mean, with fewer at the extremes.

    • Example: IQ scores (average = 100, with most people scoring between 85 and 115).

2. Inferential Statistics – Drawing Conclusions

Inferential statistics allow researchers to generalize from a sample to a larger population.

Key Concepts in Inferential Statistics

  1. Statistical Significance (p-value < 0.05)

    • Determines whether a result is due to chance or represents a real pattern.

    • If p < 0.05, results are considered statistically significant (less than 5% probability the results occurred by chance).

  2. Reliability in Research Findings

    • Results are considered reliable if:

      • The sample is representative of the population.

      • The study is replicated successfully.

      • There is low variability in the data.

  3. Generalization

    • Results from a small, biased sample cannot be generalized to a whole population.

    • Example: Studying only college students and assuming findings apply to all age groups.

Common Misinterpretations of Statistics

1. Correlation Does Not Equal Causation

  • Just because two variables are related does not mean one causes the other.

  • Example: Ice cream sales and drowning deaths are correlated—but the real factor is hot weather.

2. Statistical vs. Practical Significance

  • A result may be statistically significant but not meaningful in real life.

  • Example: A new anxiety drug statistically reduces symptoms by 2%, but that’s not a practical improvement.

3. The Misuse of Graphs and Averages

  • Graphs can be misleading by altering scales or using different measures (mean vs. median).

  • Example: A company might advertise a "50% salary increase," but if only one person got a raise, the median salary might stay the same.

Application-Based Multiple Choice Questions

  1. A researcher reports that a new study shows people who sleep less score lower on memory tests.

    • A) Lack of sleep causes poor memory.

    • B) Sleep deprivation and memory are correlated.

    • C) People with good memory require less sleep.

    • D) The study used experimental research.

  2. A study finds that high school athletes tend to have higher GPAs than non-athletes.

    • A) High GPA causes students to become athletes.

    • B) Athletes are naturally more intelligent.

    • C) A possible confounding variable is discipline and time management.

    • D) Athletic participation has no impact on GPA.

  3. A company tests two advertisements and finds that Ad A increased sales by 3% more than Ad B.

    • A) This difference is practically significant.

    • B) If the p-value is >0.05, the result is not statistically significant.

    • C) The company should stop using Ad B immediately.

    • D) This is an example of a correlational study.

  4. A school wants to see if a new teaching method improves student test scores.

    • A) The independent variable is test scores.

    • B) The dependent variable is the teaching method.

    • C) The independent variable is the teaching method.

    • D) This study uses naturalistic observation.

  5. A researcher finds that people who drink more coffee live longer.

    • A) Coffee causes increased lifespan.

    • B) Additional factors, such as diet and exercise, should be considered.

    • C) This finding proves that caffeine is healthy.

    • D) This study uses an experimental design.

Answer Key

  1. B) Sleep deprivation and memory are correlated.

  2. C) A possible confounding variable is discipline and time management.

  3. B) If the p-value is >0.05, the result is not statistically significant.

  4. C) The independent variable is the teaching method.

  5. B) Additional factors, such as diet and exercise, should be considered.

 

 

Psychology 1010: Learning Guide – Module 4

The Brain and Nervous System

The Nervous System: The Body’s Communication Network

The nervous system is the fastest communication system in the body, responsible for sending and processing information. It is divided into:

1. The Central Nervous System (CNS)

  • Brain: The command center for thoughts, emotions, and behaviors.

  • Spinal Cord: Connects the brain to the body and controls reflexes.

2. The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

  • Somatic Nervous System: Controls voluntary muscle movement (e.g., picking up a book).

  • Autonomic Nervous System: Controls involuntary functions (e.g., heart rate, digestion).

The Autonomic Nervous System has two divisions:

  1. Sympathetic Nervous System: Activates the fight-or-flight response (increases heart rate, dilates pupils, releases adrenaline).

  2. Parasympathetic Nervous System: Calms the body after stress (slows heart rate, conserves energy).

Neural Communication

Neurons: The Building Blocks of the Nervous System

Neurons are nerve cells that transmit information through electrical and chemical signals.

Structure of a Neuron:

  1. Dendrites – Receive messages from other neurons.

  2. Soma (Cell Body) – Processes information and contains the nucleus.

  3. Axon – Sends messages to other neurons.

  4. Myelin Sheath – Insulates the axon and speeds up neural impulses.

  5. Terminal Branches – Release neurotransmitters to communicate with other neurons.

Neural Impulse (Action Potential)

  • Neurons transmit signals through an electrical charge called the action potential.

  • The action potential is all-or-nothing—it either fires or it doesn’t.

Neurotransmitters: Chemical Messengers of the Brain

Neurotransmitter

Function

Example of Malfunction

Acetylcholine (ACh)

Enables muscle movement and memory

Alzheimer’s disease (ACh-producing neurons deteriorate).

Dopamine

Influences reward, movement, and learning

Too much = Schizophrenia; too little = Parkinson’s disease.

Serotonin

Affects mood, sleep, hunger

Low levels linked to depression.

Norepinephrine

Controls alertness and arousal

Low levels linked to depressed mood.

GABA

Inhibitory neurotransmitter (slows down activity)

Too little = seizures, tremors, anxiety.

Glutamate

Excitatory neurotransmitter (speeds up activity)

Too much = migraines, seizures.

Endorphins

Reduce pain and increase pleasure

Artificial opioids can suppress natural endorphin production.

Application-Based Multiple Choice Questions

  1. What is the primary function of the central nervous system?

    • A) Control voluntary and involuntary actions

    • B) Transmit messages to and from the brain

    • C) Store long-term memories

    • D) Regulate hormones

  2. A person touches a hot stove and immediately pulls their hand away before feeling pain. What explains this response?

    • A) The signal bypassed the spinal cord

    • B) The spinal cord initiated a reflex before the brain processed pain

    • C) The sympathetic nervous system activated

    • D) The pain receptors failed to function

  3. Which neurotransmitter is associated with reward and pleasure?

    • A) Serotonin

    • B) Dopamine

    • C) GABA

    • D) Acetylcholine

  4. A person with low serotonin levels may experience which condition?

    • A) Schizophrenia

    • B) Depression

    • C) Parkinson’s disease

    • D) ADHD

  5. A patient with Parkinson’s disease is most likely experiencing a deficiency in:

    • A) Dopamine

    • B) Endorphins

    • C) Acetylcholine

    • D) Glutamate

Answer Key

  1. B) Transmit messages to and from the brain

  2. B) The spinal cord initiated a reflex before the brain processed pain

  3. B) Dopamine

  4. B) Depression

  5. A) Dopamine

Psychology 1010: Learning Guide – Module 5

Tools for Studying the Brain

Techniques for Studying the Brain

Psychologists use several tools to study the brain's structure and function.

Brain Imaging Techniques

Technique

Purpose

Example

EEG (Electroencephalogram)

Measures brain waves and electrical activity

Used in sleep studies.

MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging)

Creates detailed images of brain structures

Used to detect brain tumors or damage.

fMRI (Functional MRI)

Shows real-time brain activity by measuring oxygen use

Used in cognitive neuroscienceresearch.

PET Scan (Positron Emission Tomography)

Measures glucose consumption to show active areas

Used to study Alzheimer’s disease.

Major Brain Structures and Functions

Brain Structure

Function

Medulla

Controls heart rate and breathing.

Cerebellum

Coordinates balance and voluntary movement.

Thalamus

Relay center for sensory information.

Hypothalamus

Regulates hunger, thirst, body temperature, and emotions.

Hippocampus

Important for forming new memories.

Amygdala

Processes fear and aggression.

Corpus Callosum

Connects the left and right hemispheres of the brain.

Brain Plasticity: Can the Brain Rewire Itself?

  • Brain plasticity is the brain’s ability to adapt and reorganize after injury.

  • The younger the brain, the greater its plasticity.

  • Example: Stroke patients can sometimes regain function in damaged areas by strengthening nearby neurons.

Application-Based Multiple Choice Questions

  1. Which technique would be best for measuring brain waves during sleep?

    • A) MRI

    • B) EEG

    • C) PET scan

    • D) fMRI

  2. A person has difficulty forming new memories after a brain injury. Which brain structure was likely damaged?

    • A) Amygdala

    • B) Hippocampus

    • C) Medulla

    • D) Thalamus

  3. Which brain imaging technique measures real-time brain activity by detecting oxygen use?

    • A) fMRI

    • B) PET scan

    • C) EEG

    • D) MRI

  4. A gymnast loses their sense of balance after an accident. Which brain structure was likely damaged?

    • A) Cerebellum

    • B) Hypothalamus

    • C) Medulla

    • D) Thalamus

  5. A stroke patient can still recognize faces but struggles with speech. Which hemisphere was likely affected?

    • A) Left

    • B) Right

    • C) Frontal

    • D) Occipital

Answer Key

  1. B) EEG

  2. B) Hippocampus

  3. A) fMRI

  4. A) Cerebellum

  5. A) Left

 

Psychology 1010: Learning Guide – Module 6

Brain Structures and Functions

The Brain’s Organization

The brain is divided into three main areas:

  1. The Brainstem (Oldest Part) – Controls basic survival functions.

  2. The Limbic System (Emotion & Memory Center) – Regulates emotions, memory, and motivation.

  3. The Cerebral Cortex (Higher Thinking) – Responsible for advanced cognitive functions.

1. The Brainstem: Life-Support Functions

The brainstem controls automatic survival functions and connects the brain to the spinal cord.

Brainstem Structure

Function

Medulla

Controls heart rate, breathing, and digestion.

Pons

Helps with sleep, movement, and facial expressions.

Reticular Formation

Controls alertness and arousal (damage = coma).

Thalamus

The "sensory switchboard" that relays information to the correct brain area.

Cerebellum

Coordinates balance, posture, and voluntary movement.

2. The Limbic System: Emotion & Memory

The limbic system is responsible for emotions, memory, and motivation.

Limbic System Structure

Function

Amygdala

Regulates fear and aggression.

Hippocampus

Responsible for forming new memories.

Hypothalamus

Regulates hunger, thirst, temperature, and hormones.

Pituitary Gland

Controls hormone production (the "master gland").

3. The Cerebral Cortex: Higher Thinking

The cerebral cortex is divided into four lobes:

Lobe

Function

Frontal Lobe

Controls decision-making, problem-solving, and voluntary movement.

Parietal Lobe

Processes touch, pain, and body position.

Occipital Lobe

Responsible for vision and visual processing.

Temporal Lobe

Processes hearing, language, and memory.

Application-Based Multiple Choice Questions

  1. Which brain structure is responsible for maintaining balance and coordination?

    • A) Hypothalamus

    • B) Cerebellum

    • C) Amygdala

    • D) Thalamus

  2. A patient has difficulty forming new memories after a brain injury. Which brain structure was likely affected?

    • A) Hippocampus

    • B) Medulla

    • C) Amygdala

    • D) Pons

  3. Which part of the brain regulates emotions like fear and aggression?

    • A) Hippocampus

    • B) Amygdala

    • C) Thalamus

    • D) Cerebellum

  4. A person suffers paralysis on the right side of their body after a stroke. Which hemisphere was affected?

    • A) Left

    • B) Right

    • C) Temporal

    • D) Occipital

  5. The frontal lobe is responsible for:

    • A) Vision processing

    • B) Movement and decision-making

    • C) Sensory processing

    • D) Memory formation

Answer Key

  1. B) Cerebellum

  2. A) Hippocampus

  3. B) Amygdala

  4. A) Left

  5. B) Movement and decision-making

Psychology 1010: Learning Guide – Module 7

The Nervous System

Divisions of the Nervous System

The nervous system is the body's communication system, divided into two main parts:

1. Central Nervous System (CNS)

  • Consists of: The brain and spinal cord.

  • Function: Controls most bodily functions and processes sensory information.

2. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

  • Connects the CNS to the rest of the body.

  • Subdivided into:

    1. Somatic Nervous System: Controls voluntary movements (e.g., moving your hand).

    2. Autonomic Nervous System: Controls involuntary actions (e.g., heart rate, digestion).

Autonomic Nervous System: Involuntary Functions

The autonomic nervous system is divided into two opposing systems:

Division

Function

Sympathetic Nervous System

Activates the fight-or-flight response (increases heart rate, dilates pupils, releases adrenaline).

Parasympathetic Nervous System

Calms the body after stress (slows heart rate, conserves energy).

Example: If you're being chased by a bear, your sympathetic nervous system speeds up your heart and pumps adrenaline. Once safe, your parasympathetic nervous system calms you down.

Neural Communication

Neurons: The Building Blocks of the Nervous System

Neurons are specialized cells that send and receive signals.

Parts of a Neuron

  1. Dendrites – Receive incoming signals.

  2. Soma (Cell Body) – Processes information.

  3. Axon – Sends signals to other neurons.

  4. Myelin Sheath – Increases the speed of signal transmission.

  5. Terminal Branches – Release neurotransmitters.

Example: When you touch something hot, neurons fire an action potential that tells your muscles to pull away.

Reflexes and the Spinal Cord

Reflexes are automatic responses that bypass the brain.

Example: When you step on a sharp object, your spinal cord immediately signals your leg to move before your brain even processes the pain.

Application-Based Multiple Choice Questions

  1. The central nervous system consists of:

    • A) Brain and spinal cord

    • B) Brain and nerves

    • C) Spinal cord and peripheral nerves

    • D) Nerves and muscles

  2. Which part of the nervous system controls voluntary movements?

    • A) Autonomic Nervous System

    • B) Somatic Nervous System

    • C) Sympathetic Nervous System

    • D) Reflex Arc

  3. A person's heart rate increases and pupils dilate when they are scared. What system is responsible?

    • A) Parasympathetic Nervous System

    • B) Somatic Nervous System

    • C) Sympathetic Nervous System

    • D) Central Nervous System

  4. What part of the neuron carries signals away from the cell body?

    • A) Dendrite

    • B) Axon

    • C) Soma

    • D) Synapse

  5. Reflexes, like quickly pulling your hand away from a hot stove, are processed by the:

    • A) Brain

    • B) Spinal Cord

    • C) Sensory Neurons

    • D) Motor Cortex

Answer Key

  1. A) Brain and spinal cord

  2. B) Somatic Nervous System

  3. C) Sympathetic Nervous System

  4. B) Axon

  5. B) Spinal Cord

 

Psychology 1010: Learning Guide – Module 8

Consciousness and the Two-Track Mind

What is Consciousness?

  • Consciousness is our awareness of ourselves and our environment.

  • The mind processes information on two levels simultaneously:

    1. Conscious ("High Road") – Deliberate, controlled processing (e.g., solving a math problem).

    2. Unconscious ("Low Road") – Automatic, intuitive processing (e.g., recognizing a face).

Example: When driving, you consciously focus on the road, but your unconscious mind still processes surrounding sounds and movements.

Selective Attention and Inattentional Blindness

  • Selective Attention: The brain focuses on a limited number of stimuli while ignoring others.

    • Example: The cocktail party effect – You can focus on one conversation in a noisy room.

  • Inattentional Blindness: Failing to notice visible objects when focusing elsewhere.

    • Example: In a famous experiment, people failed to see a gorilla walking through a basketball game because they were counting passes.

Sleep and Biological Rhythms

Our sleep cycle follows a 24-hour biological rhythm called the circadian rhythm.

  • Regulated by light exposure and the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) in the hypothalamus.

  • Melatonin (a sleep hormone) is produced when it gets dark.

Sleep Stages

Sleep Stage

Description

NREM-1

Light sleep, may experience hallucinations (falling sensation).

NREM-2

Deeper relaxation, sleep spindles (bursts of brain activity).

NREM-3

Deep sleep, delta waves, hard to wake up.

REM (Rapid Eye Movement) Sleep

Dreaming occurs, brain is active but body is paralyzed.

Sleep Cycle Facts:

  • A complete sleep cycle lasts 90 minutes.

  • REM sleep increases as the night progresses.

  • Sleep deprivation leads to memory problems, weight gain, and weakened immunity.

Why Do We Sleep?

  • Restoration: Helps repair tissues and consolidate memories.

  • Growth: Growth hormones are released during deep sleep.

  • Memory Processing: Strengthens neural connections.

Application-Based Multiple Choice Questions

  1. What is the primary function of consciousness?

    • A) To store memories

    • B) To help us react to stimuli instantly

    • C) To allow us to process information and respond to our environment

    • D) To increase brain size

  2. The cocktail party effect is an example of:

    • A) Unconscious processing

    • B) Selective attention

    • C) REM sleep

    • D) Inattentional blindness

  3. Which sleep stage is associated with deep sleep and delta waves?

    • A) NREM-1

    • B) NREM-2

    • C) NREM-3

    • D) REM

  4. What regulates the body's circadian rhythm?

    • A) Cerebellum

    • B) Hypothalamus

    • C) Amygdala

    • D) Brainstem

  5. As the night progresses, what happens to REM sleep duration?

    • A) It decreases

    • B) It remains the same

    • C) It increases

    • D) It disappears

Answer Key

  1. C) To allow us to process information and respond to our environment

  2. B) Selective attention

  3. C) NREM-3

  4. B) Hypothalamus

  5. C) It increases

Psychology 1010: Learning Guide – Module 9

Sleep and Dreams

Why Do We Dream?

Several theories explain why humans dream:

  1. Freud’s Wish-Fulfillment Theory

    • Dreams represent unconscious desires and conflicts.

    • Manifest content: The remembered storyline.

    • Latent content: The hidden meaning.

    • Criticism: Not scientifically testable.

  2. Information-Processing Theory

    • Dreams help us consolidate memories.

    • Example: Studying before bed can improve recall.

  3. Physiological Function Theory

    • Dreams help preserve and develop neural pathways.

  4. Activation-Synthesis Theory

    • Dreams are the brain’s attempt to make sense of random neural activity.

Common Sleep Disorders

Sleep Disorder

Description

Insomnia

Difficulty falling or staying asleep.

Narcolepsy

Uncontrollable sleep attacks, falling into REM suddenly.

Sleep Apnea

Breathing stops temporarily during sleep.

Night Terrors

High arousal and fear during NREM-3 sleep (not a nightmare).

Effects of Sleep Deprivation

  • Cognitive Impairment: Trouble with memory and decision-making.

  • Emotional Changes: Increased irritability.

  • Physical Health Problems: Higher risk of heart disease, weight gain, and weakened immune function.

Application-Based Multiple Choice Questions

  1. Which sleep disorder involves sudden sleep attacks?

    • A) Sleep Apnea

    • B) Narcolepsy

    • C) Insomnia

    • D) Night Terrors

  2. According to Freud, what is the latent content of a dream?

    • A) The actual storyline

    • B) The remembered details

    • C) The hidden meaning

    • D) The conscious thoughts

  3. Which sleep theory states that dreams help process and consolidate memories?

    • A) Activation-Synthesis Theory

    • B) Wish-Fulfillment Theory

    • C) Information-Processing Theory

    • D) Physiological Function Theory

  4. What happens to the body during REM sleep?

    • A) The brain is inactive, but the body moves

    • B) Both brain and body are inactive

    • C) The brain is active, but the body is paralyzed

    • D) The body experiences night terrors

  5. Night terrors occur during which stage of sleep?

    • A) NREM-1

    • B) REM

    • C) NREM-3

    • D) NREM-2

Answer Key

  1. B) Narcolepsy

  2. C) The hidden meaning

  3. C) Information-Processing Theory

  4. C) The brain is active, but the body is paralyzed

  5. C) NREM-3

 

 

Module 10: Psychoactive Drugs and Their Effects

What Are Psychoactive Drugs?

  • Psychoactive drugs are substances that alter mood, perception, and behavior by affecting neurotransmitters in the brain.

  • They are divided into three major categories:

    1. Depressants – Slow down neural activity.

    2. Stimulants – Speed up neural activity.

    3. Hallucinogens – Distort perceptions and evoke sensory images.

1. Depressants: Slowing Down Neural Activity

Depressants slow bodily functions by increasing the activity of the inhibitory neurotransmitter GABA.

Drug

Effects

Risks

Alcohol

Reduces inhibitions, impairs judgment, slows reaction time

Addiction, liver damage, memory blackouts

Barbiturates (Tranquilizers)

Induce relaxation and sleep

High overdose potential, respiratory failure

Opioids (Heroin, Morphine, Oxycodone)

Reduce pain and anxiety, mimic endorphins

Extremely addictive, risk of overdose

  • Alcohol impairs the frontal lobe, leading to poor decision-making and impulsive behavior.

  • Opioids bind to endorphin receptors, reducing pain but also causing withdrawal symptoms.

🔴 Real-World Example:
The opioid crisis in the U.S. has resulted from overprescription of painkillers, leading to widespread addiction and overdose deaths.

2. Stimulants: Increasing Neural Activity

Stimulants excite neural activity and increase the release of dopamine and norepinephrine.

Drug

Effects

Risks

Nicotine

Increases alertness and heart rate

Highly addictive, lung disease

Cocaine

Blocks dopamine reuptake, causing euphoria

Anxiety, paranoia, heart attack

Methamphetamine

Releases massive amounts of dopamine

Brain damage, hallucinations

Caffeine

Blocks adenosine (sleep chemical), increasing energy

Insomnia, high blood pressure

  • Cocaine blocks dopamine reuptake, creating a "high" but leading to severe withdrawal symptoms.

  • Methamphetamine damages dopamine-producing neurons, leading to long-term cognitive impairment.

3. Hallucinogens: Altering Perceptions

Hallucinogens interfere with serotonin and alter sensory experiences.

Drug

Effects

Risks

LSD (Acid)

Alters perception, causes hallucinations

Unpredictable "bad trips", psychosis

Marijuana (THC)

Relaxes, enhances sensory experiences

Impaired memory, mental health issues

Ecstasy (MDMA)

Euphoria, emotional warmth

Dehydration, serotonin depletion

🔴 Real-World Example:
Marijuana legalization has increased research into its medical benefits (e.g., pain relief) while raising concerns about its effects on teen brain development.

Application-Based Multiple Choice Questions

  1. Which category of psychoactive drugs slows down the central nervous system?

    • A) Stimulants

    • B) Depressants

    • C) Hallucinogens

    • D) Opioids

  2. What neurotransmitter does cocaine affect the most?

    • A) Serotonin

    • B) Dopamine

    • C) GABA

    • D) Glutamate

  3. Which drug is classified as both a stimulant and a hallucinogen?

    • A) Alcohol

    • B) LSD

    • C) Ecstasy (MDMA)

    • D) Heroin

  4. Which of the following drugs mimics endorphins and is used for pain relief?

    • A) Methamphetamine

    • B) Opioids

    • C) Nicotine

    • D) Marijuana

  5. What is the most widely consumed psychoactive drug in the world?

    • A) Cocaine

    • B) Caffeine

    • C) Nicotine

    • D) Alcohol

Answer Key

  1. B) Depressants

  2. B) Dopamine

  3. C) Ecstasy (MDMA)

  4. B) Opioids

  5. B) Caffeine

Module 11: Genetics, Evolutionary Psychology, and Behavior

Nature vs. Nurture Debate

  • Nature (Genetics) → Inherited traits.

  • Nurture (Environment) → Learned behaviors.

  • Behavior Genetics explores how genes and environment interact.

Key Genetic Concepts

Term

Definition

Genome

The complete set of genetic material.

Genes

DNA segments that determine traits.

Twin Studies

Compare identical and fraternal twins to measure genetic influence.

Heritability

The extent to which differences in traits are due to genetics.

  • Identical twins have more similar personalities than fraternal twins, suggesting a strong genetic influence.

  • Adoption studies show that adopted children resemble their biological parents more than their adoptive ones in personality.

🔴 Real-World Example:
Studies on separated identical twins (e.g., the Minnesota Twin Study) show that genetics plays a large role in intelligence and temperament.

Evolutionary Psychology and Natural Selection

  • Natural Selection (Darwin): Traits that aid survival and reproduction are passed on.

  • Example: Humans’ fear of snakes may have evolved because avoiding snakes increased survival.

🔴 Criticism of Evolutionary Psychology:

  • Overemphasizes biological determinism and ignores cultural influences.

  • Many human behaviors are socially learned, not just genetically inherited.

Application-Based Multiple Choice Questions

  1. What does heritability measure?

    • A) A single person’s genetic makeup

    • B) How much genetic differences contribute to traits

    • C) Environmental effects on personality

    • D) The number of genes in a species

  2. Identical twins have more similar personalities than fraternal twins. What does this suggest?

    • A) Personality is largely genetic

    • B) Personality is shaped by environment

    • C) Personality is random

    • D) Fraternal twins are more intelligent

  3. Which of the following best describes natural selection?

    • A) Humans choosing mates

    • B) Traits that enhance survival get passed on

    • C) Genes mutating randomly

    • D) Rapid genetic changes over a few years

Answer Key

  1. B) How much genetic differences contribute to traits

  2. A) Personality is largely genetic

  3. B) Traits that enhance survival get passed on

 

 

Psychology 1010: Learning Guide – Module 12

Environmental Influences on Behavior

Nature vs. Nurture Revisited

  • Nature (Genetics): Determines potential (e.g., intelligence range, temperament).

  • Nurture (Environment): Shapes how traits develop (e.g., education affecting IQ, parenting affecting personality).

  • Interaction: Most psychological traits result from both genetics and environment.

🔴 Example: A person might inherit a genetic predisposition for intelligence, but without proper education and nutrition, their cognitive abilities may not fully develop.

How Does the Environment Shape Behavior?

1. Prenatal Influences (Before Birth)

  • The environment begins affecting a baby in the womb.

  • Teratogens: Harmful substances (e.g., alcohol, drugs, toxins) that can negatively impact fetal development.

  • Example: Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS) causes brain abnormalities and cognitive impairment due to alcohol exposure in utero.

2. Early Childhood Development

  • The first few years are crucial for brain growth.

  • The brain’s plasticity (ability to reorganize) is highest in early childhood.

  • Early stimulation (talking, reading, playing) builds neural connections.

  • Neglect or deprivation leads to fewer synaptic connections, affecting learning, emotion regulation, and memory.

🔴 Example:
Children raised in orphanages with little social interaction tend to develop lower intelligence and higher emotional difficulties due to lack of stimulation.

3. Parental Influence

  • Parenting styles influence children’s social, emotional, and cognitive development.

Parenting Style

Characteristics

Effects on Child

Authoritarian

Strict rules, little warmth

Low self-esteem, obedient but anxious

Permissive

Few rules, indulgent

Impulsive, poor emotional regulation

Authoritative

Warm but firm, enforces rules

High self-esteem, responsible

Neglectful

Uninvolved, indifferent

Poor social skills, emotional withdrawal

🔴 Example:
Studies show that children raised in authoritative households tend to perform better in school and social situations than those raised with authoritarian or permissive parenting.

4. Peer Influence

  • Peers shape behaviors, interests, and social habits more than parents during adolescence.

  • Children and teens are likely to adopt peer group norms (e.g., language, fashion, habits).

  • Negative peer pressure can encourage risky behaviors (e.g., drug use, delinquency).

🔴 Example:
A child who moves to a new country quickly adopts the local accent and slang to fit in with peers.

5. Cultural Influence on Behavior

  • Culture shapes our values, beliefs, and expected behaviors.

  • Different cultures emphasize different social norms and behaviors.

Culture Type

Key Traits

Individualist (Western)

Focus on personal achievement, independence (e.g., USA, UK).

Collectivist (Eastern)

Focus on group harmony, duty, and interdependence (e.g., Japan, China).

🔴 Example:
A child in an individualistic culture is encouraged to express personal opinions, while a child in a collectivist culture is taught to prioritize family harmony.

6. Gender Roles and Expectations

  • Gender roles are socially constructed ideas about how men and women "should" behave.

  • Gender identity is an individual’s sense of being male, female, or another gender.

  • Social learning theory suggests that children learn gender roles by observing and imitating others.

🔴 Example:

  • Boys are often encouraged to play with action figures and girls with dolls due to reinforced societal expectations.

🔴 Criticism:

  • Traditional gender roles can limit individual potential by discouraging behaviors that don’t align with societal expectations.

Critical Perspectives on Environmental Influences

🔴 Nature and Nurture Work Together

  • Genetics may predispose a child toward aggression, but a nurturing environment can suppress aggressive tendencies.

🔴 Culture and Gender Roles Are Changing

  • Many cultures are shifting toward more fluid gender roles and less rigid expectations.

🔴 Parental Influence is Overestimated

  • While parents shape early development, peer influence and culture become stronger over time.

Application-Based Multiple Choice Questions

  1. Which of the following is an example of a teratogen?

    • A) Breastfeeding

    • B) Alcohol consumed during pregnancy

    • C) Positive reinforcement

    • D) High IQ

  2. A child raised in an enriched environment will likely have:

    • A) A smaller brain

    • B) Weaker neural connections

    • C) Stronger cognitive abilities

    • D) No change in intelligence

  3. What does the term gender role refer to?

    • A) An individual’s biological sex

    • B) Society’s expectations of male and female behavior

    • C) A person’s sexual orientation

    • D) A genetic predisposition

  4. Which parenting style is characterized by strict rules but little warmth?

    • A) Permissive

    • B) Neglectful

    • C) Authoritarian

    • D) Authoritative

  5. What is a key difference between collectivist and individualist cultures?

    • A) Collectivist cultures emphasize group harmony, while individualist cultures prioritize independence

    • B) Collectivist cultures encourage self-expression, while individualist cultures do not

    • C) Individualist cultures avoid competition, while collectivist cultures encourage it

    • D) Collectivist cultures value individual success over social harmony

Answer Key

  1. B) Alcohol consumed during pregnancy

  2. C) Stronger cognitive abilities

  3. B) Society’s expectations of male and female behavior

  4. C) Authoritarian

  5. A) Collectivist cultures emphasize group harmony, while individualist cultures prioritize independence

 

Module 13: Gender and Sexuality

Understanding Sex, Gender, and Sexuality

  • Sex: The biological classification of male and female based on reproductive anatomy.

  • Gender: The socially influenced roles and behaviors associated with male and female identities.

  • Gender Identity: A person’s deeply felt sense of being male, female, non-binary, or another gender identity.

Biological Influences on Gender Development

  • Sex chromosomes: XX (female) and XY (male).

  • Hormonal influences: Testosterone affects aggression and spatial reasoning; estrogen impacts verbal skills and emotional processing.

  • Prenatal influences: Testosterone exposure in the womb affects later gender identity and behavior.

🔴 Real-World Example: Studies show that higher testosterone exposure in utero correlates with more male-typical behavior, regardless of assigned sex at birth.

Gender Roles and Socialization

  • Gender roles: Societal expectations about male and female behavior.

  • Gender typing: How children learn these roles.

  • Social learning theory: Children learn gender roles by observing and imitating role models (e.g., parents, teachers, media).

🔴 Example: In many cultures, boys are encouraged to play with trucks while girls are given dolls, reinforcing traditional gender norms.

Sexual Orientation and Its Origins

  • Sexual orientation refers to who a person is romantically or sexually attracted to.

  • Biological influences on sexuality:

    • Genetic factors: Higher concordance rates for homosexuality in identical twins.

    • Prenatal hormone exposure: Affects sexual preference development.

    • Brain structure differences: The hypothalamus in gay men resembles that of heterosexual women.

🔴 Criticism:

  • Some argue that environment and personal experiences also shape sexuality.

Application-Based Multiple Choice Questions (Module 13)

  1. Which of the following best describes gender identity?

    • A) A person’s biological sex at birth

    • B) A person’s deeply felt sense of being male, female, or another gender

    • C) A person’s sexual preference

    • D) The socially expected roles of men and women

  2. What hormone is primarily responsible for male-typical behavior?

    • A) Estrogen

    • B) Oxytocin

    • C) Testosterone

    • D) Serotonin

  3. Which theory states that children learn gender roles by watching and imitating others?

    • A) Cognitive Development Theory

    • B) Gender Schema Theory

    • C) Social Learning Theory

    • D) Evolutionary Psychology

  4. What evidence suggests a biological basis for sexual orientation?

    • A) Parenting styles determine attraction

    • B) Identical twins are more likely to have the same sexual orientation

    • C) Sexuality is entirely determined by personal choice

    • D) Cultural influences override biology

  5. A person assigned female at birth but who identifies as male is an example of:

    • A) Gender dysphoria

    • B) Androgyny

    • C) A transgender individual

    • D) A non-binary person

Answer Key (Module 13)

  1. B) A person’s deeply felt sense of being male, female, or another gender

  2. C) Testosterone

  3. C) Social Learning Theory

  4. B) Identical twins are more likely to have the same sexual orientation

  5. C) A transgender individual

Module 14: Developmental Psychology

Prenatal and Early Development

  • Zygote (0-2 weeks): Rapid cell division.

  • Embryo (2-9 weeks): Major organ development.

  • Fetus (9 weeks-birth): Continued growth and brain development.

  • Teratogens: Harmful substances (e.g., alcohol, nicotine) that can cause birth defects.

🔴 Example: Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS) leads to brain damage and cognitive impairments.

Piaget’s Cognitive Development Theory

Stage

Age

Key Features

Sensorimotor

0-2 years

Object permanence, sensory learning

Preoperational

2-7 years

Egocentrism, pretend play

Concrete Operational

7-11 years

Logical thought, conservation

Formal Operational

12+ years

Abstract reasoning

🔴 Example: A child in the preoperational stage believes a taller glass holds more water than a shorter, wider one.

Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages (Childhood)

Stage

Age

Conflict

Trust vs. Mistrust

0-1

Developing trust in caregivers

Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt

1-3

Gaining independence

Initiative vs. Guilt

3-6

Learning responsibility

🔴 Example: A toddler encouraged to explore builds autonomy, while one punished for independence may develop shame.

Application-Based Multiple Choice Questions (Module 14)

  1. What is a teratogen?

    • A) A form of parenting style

    • B) A harmful substance affecting prenatal development

    • C) A genetic disorder

    • D) A stage of brain development

  2. At what Piagetian stage does a child develop conservation?

    • A) Sensorimotor

    • B) Preoperational

    • C) Concrete Operational

    • D) Formal Operational

  3. According to Erikson, what conflict does an infant face?

    • A) Trust vs. Mistrust

    • B) Autonomy vs. Shame

    • C) Initiative vs. Guilt

    • D) Identity vs. Role Confusion

  4. A child who is unable to see a situation from another person’s perspective is displaying:

    • A) Object permanence

    • B) Conservation

    • C) Egocentrism

    • D) Logical reasoning

  5. What is a key feature of the formal operational stage?

    • A) Basic motor skills

    • B) Logical thinking

    • C) Abstract reasoning

    • D) Egocentrism

Answer Key (Module 14)

  1. B) A harmful substance affecting prenatal development

  2. C) Concrete Operational

  3. A) Trust vs. Mistrust

  4. C) Egocentrism

  5. C) Abstract reasoning

Module 15: Adolescence and Adulthood

Adolescence: The Transition to Adulthood

  • Adolescence is the life stage between childhood and adulthood, typically ranging from puberty to the early 20s.

  • Marked by physical, cognitive, emotional, and social changes.

  • The brain’s prefrontal cortex (responsible for decision-making and impulse control) is still developing, leading to increased risk-taking.

🔴 Example: Adolescents may engage in risky behaviors such as reckless driving or substance use because their ability to evaluate long-term consequences is still developing.

Physical Development in Adolescence

  • Puberty: The period of sexual maturation when a person becomes capable of reproduction.

    • Primary sex characteristics: The reproductive organs (ovaries, testes).

    • Secondary sex characteristics: Non-reproductive traits (e.g., body hair, voice changes, breast development).

  • Brain Development:

    • The limbic system (emotions and reward processing) develops before the prefrontal cortex (decision-making).

    • Myelin growth (nerve insulation) improves brain processing speed.

🔴 Example: The emotional limbic system drives adolescents to seek rewards (e.g., social approval, risk-taking) before the prefrontal cortex is mature enough to weigh consequences.

Cognitive Development in Adolescence

According to Jean Piaget, adolescents enter the Formal Operational Stage (12+ years):
✔ Abstract reasoning (thinking about hypothetical situations).
✔ Moral reasoning (evaluating ethical dilemmas).
✔ Metacognition (thinking about one’s own thinking).

🔴 Example: A teenager may argue about philosophical topics or question authority as they develop abstract thinking.

Moral Development in Adolescence (Kohlberg’s Theory)

Lawrence Kohlberg proposed three levels of moral reasoning:

Level

Age Range

Characteristics

Preconventional

Childhood

Morality based on rewards and punishments.

Conventional

Adolescence

Morality based on social rules and approval.

Postconventional

Adulthood

Morality based on ethical principles, even if they conflict with laws.

🔴 Example:

  • A child in the preconventional stage may follow rules to avoid punishment.

  • A teen in the conventional stage may obey rules to fit into society.

  • An adult in the postconventional stage may challenge unjust laws (e.g., civil rights activists).

Social and Emotional Development in Adolescence (Erikson’s Stage Theory)

Erikson's Stage

Age Range

Psychological Conflict

Resolution

Identity vs. Role Confusion

Adolescence (12-18)

Developing a stable self-identity

If successful: strong sense of self. If not: confusion about future roles.

  • Adolescents experiment with different beliefs, values, and career paths to form their identity.

  • Peer influence peaks during adolescence, shaping self-perception and values.

🔴 Example: A high school student may try different fashion styles, hobbies, or friend groups to explore their identity.

Emerging Adulthood (18-25 Years)

  • A transitional phase between adolescence and full adulthood.

  • Characterized by continued identity exploration, career decisions, and relationship formation.

  • More common in modern societies where people delay marriage, career, and financial independence.

🔴 Example: A college student experimenting with different majors before deciding on a career path.

Application-Based Multiple Choice Questions (Module 15)

  1. Which brain region is still developing during adolescence, leading to impulsive decision-making?

    • A) Limbic system

    • B) Prefrontal cortex

    • C) Cerebellum

    • D) Hypothalamus

  2. According to Piaget, what cognitive ability develops in adolescence?

    • A) Object permanence

    • B) Conservation

    • C) Abstract thinking

    • D) Reflexes

  3. In Kohlberg’s theory, an adolescent who follows rules to gain approval is at what level of moral reasoning?

    • A) Preconventional

    • B) Conventional

    • C) Postconventional

    • D) Reflexive

  4. Erikson believed adolescence was marked by a struggle to develop:

    • A) Trust

    • B) Autonomy

    • C) Identity

    • D) Intimacy

  5. Which of the following is an example of emerging adulthood?

    • A) A toddler learning to walk

    • B) A high school student rebelling against authority

    • C) A 20-year-old delaying marriage to pursue education

    • D) A retired adult reflecting on life

Answer Key (Module 15)

  1. B) Prefrontal cortex

  2. C) Abstract thinking

  3. B) Conventional

  4. C) Identity

  5. C) A 20-year-old delaying marriage to pursue education

Module 16: Adulthood and Aging

Physical Changes in Adulthood

  • Early Adulthood (20s-30s): Peak physical strength, cognitive speed, and reproductive ability.

  • Middle Adulthood (40s-60s):

    • Declining metabolism, muscle mass, and flexibility.

    • Menopause (in women): The end of menstrual cycles, reduced estrogen levels.

  • Late Adulthood (60+ years):

    • Sensory decline (vision, hearing, touch sensitivity).

    • Weakened immune system but increased antibodies (less frequent but more severe illnesses).

🔴 Example: Older adults require brighter light for reading due to reduced pupil size and lens flexibility.

Cognitive Changes in Adulthood

  • Fluid intelligence (quick thinking, problem-solving) declines with age.

  • Crystallized intelligence (accumulated knowledge, vocabulary) remains stable or improves.

  • Dementia and Alzheimer’s Disease:

    • Alzheimer’s is a progressive brain disorder that leads to memory loss, cognitive decline, and personality changes.

🔴 Example: A professor may struggle to learn new technology (fluid intelligence declines) but still remember decades of research (crystallized intelligence remains strong).

Social and Emotional Development (Erikson’s Later Stages)

Erikson's Stage

Age

Conflict

Resolution

Intimacy vs. Isolation

20s-40s

Forming close relationships

Success = meaningful partnerships; Failure = loneliness.

Generativity vs. Stagnation

40s-60s

Contributing to society

Success = career/family satisfaction; Failure = feeling purposeless.

Integrity vs. Despair

60+

Reflecting on life

Success = life satisfaction; Failure = regret and despair.

🔴 Example: A retired individual who feels they led a fulfilling life experiences integrity, while one with regrets feels despair.

Death and Dying: Kübler-Ross’s Five Stages of Grief

  1. Denial – "This can't be happening."

  2. Anger – "Why me?"

  3. Bargaining – "If only I had more time…"

  4. Depression – "I feel hopeless."

  5. Acceptance – "I'm at peace with this."

🔴 Example: A person diagnosed with a terminal illness may go through denial before eventually accepting their condition.

Application-Based Multiple Choice Questions (Module 16)

  1. Which of the following declines with age?

    • A) Crystallized intelligence

    • B) Fluid intelligence

    • C) Vocabulary

    • D) General knowledge

  2. According to Erikson, what is the final stage of psychosocial development?

    • A) Trust vs. Mistrust

    • B) Intimacy vs. Isolation

    • C) Integrity vs. Despair

    • D) Generativity vs. Stagnation

  3. What is a major risk factor for developing Alzheimer’s disease?

    • A) High intelligence

    • B) Old age

    • C) Being physically active

    • D) Eating a high-protein diet

  4. Which stage of grief involves anger and resentment?

    • A) Denial

    • B) Bargaining

    • C) Anger

    • D) Acceptance

Answer Key (Module 16)

  1. B) Fluid intelligence

  2. C) Integrity vs. Despair

  3. B) Old age

  4. C) Anger

Psychology 1010: Comprehensive Learning Guide – Module 17

Sensation and Perception

Understanding Sensation vs. Perception

  • Sensation: The process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive stimulus energy from the environment.

    • Example: Light waves hitting the retina, sound waves stimulating the ear.

  • Perception: The brain’s interpretation of sensory information, allowing us to recognize meaningful objects and events.

    • Example: Recognizing a face, interpreting a song’s emotion.

🔴 Key Difference: Sensation is passive (receiving stimuli), while perception is active (interpreting stimuli based on experience and expectations).

The Process of Sensation: Sensory Systems

Sense

Stimulus

Key Structures

Vision

Light waves

Retina, optic nerve

Hearing (Audition)

Sound waves

Cochlea, auditory nerve

Touch (Somatosensation)

Pressure, pain, temperature

Skin receptors

Taste (Gustation)

Chemical molecules

Taste buds

Smell (Olfaction)

Airborne chemicals

Olfactory bulb

Body Position (Kinesthesia)

Body movement

Muscle and joint sensors

Balance (Vestibular Sense)

Gravity, head position

Inner ear (semicircular canals)

🔴 Example: The vestibular sense in your inner ear helps maintain balance while walking, dancing, or riding a bike.

How We Detect Sensory Information: Thresholds

  1. Absolute Threshold – The minimum level of stimulus needed to detect it 50% of the time.

    • Example: Seeing a candle flame from 30 miles away in total darkness.

  2. Difference Threshold (Just Noticeable Difference – JND) – The smallest difference between two stimuli that can be detected 50% of the time.

    • Example: Noticing a change in volume on your phone.

  3. Weber’s Law: The size of the just noticeable difference is a constant proportion of the stimulus intensity.

    • Example: If you add 1 lb to a 5 lb weight, you’ll notice. Adding 1 lb to a 100 lb weight? Unnoticeable.

🔴 Real-World Example: A new parent wakes up immediately when hearing their baby cry but sleeps through other background noises due to the absolute threshold being lower for important sounds.

Sensory Adaptation: Why We Stop Noticing Stimuli

  • Definition: A decreased sensitivity to a constant stimulus over time.

  • Example:

    • You stop noticing a strong perfume scent after a few minutes.

    • Your eyes adjust to the dark when entering a movie theater.

  • Purpose: Prevents sensory overload by allowing us to focus on new stimuli.

🔴 Criticism: Sensory adaptation is beneficial, but dangerous in some cases (e.g., failing to notice a gas leak due to adapting to the smell).

Perception: How We Organize and Interpret Sensory Information

1. Top-Down vs. Bottom-Up Processing

  • Bottom-Up Processing: Begins with sensory receptors, then the brain interprets the information.

    • Example: Seeing a new animal and figuring out what it is.

  • Top-Down Processing: Uses existing knowledge, expectations, and experiences to interpret stimuli.

    • Example: Reading messy handwriting because you expect certain words in a sentence.

🔴 Example:

  • Top-Down: You see what you expect (e.g., expecting a friend’s voice in a crowd).

  • Bottom-Up: You analyze new data without prior expectations (e.g., seeing a foreign script and trying to make sense of it).

2. Perceptual Organization: Gestalt Principles

The Gestalt psychologists proposed that the brain organizes sensory input into meaningful wholes rather than isolated parts.

Principle

Explanation

Example

Figure-Ground

Distinguishing between object (figure) and background (ground)

A vase or two faces illusion

Proximity

Objects close together are grouped

Seeing 3 pairs instead of 6 dots

Similarity

Similar objects are perceived as a unit

Rows of circles vs. squares

Closure

The brain fills in gaps to complete an image

Seeing a triangle even when parts are missing

Continuity

We perceive smooth, continuous patterns

A wavy line overlapping a straight line

🔴 Example:

  • Figure-Ground: Seeing a silhouette in a bright background.

  • Closure: Your brain fills in missing parts of a blurry road sign.

3. Depth Perception: How We See in 3D

  • Binocular Cues: Require both eyes to perceive depth.

    • Retinal Disparity: The slight difference in images between each eye helps gauge distance.

    • Convergence: Eye muscles strain more when focusing on nearby objects.

  • Monocular Cues: Work with one eye.

    • Linear Perspective: Parallel lines appear to converge in the distance (e.g., railroad tracks).

    • Relative Size: Closer objects appear larger than far ones.

    • Interposition: Closer objects block the view of distant ones.

🔴 Example:

  • A car far away looks smaller, but you still know it’s a normal size due to relative size perception.

  • A pencil appears to jump when closing one eye due to retinal disparity.

Application-Based Multiple Choice Questions (Module 17)

  1. What is the main difference between sensation and perception?

    • A) Sensation is subjective; perception is objective

    • B) Sensation detects stimuli; perception interprets stimuli

    • C) Sensation occurs in the brain; perception occurs in the senses

    • D) Sensation requires learning; perception is innate

  2. Which of the following is an example of sensory adaptation?

    • A) Noticing a small weight difference between two dumbbells

    • B) Becoming unaware of a strong perfume scent after a few minutes

    • C) Distinguishing between two similar colors

    • D) Reacting to a sudden loud noise

  3. What is an example of top-down processing?

    • A) Hearing a word in an unfamiliar language and recognizing it instantly

    • B) Analyzing an abstract painting with no expectations

    • C) Reading messy handwriting and understanding it due to context

    • D) Identifying a song based on musical notes alone

  4. Which Gestalt principle explains why we see a complete circle even if part of it is missing?

    • A) Similarity

    • B) Closure

    • C) Figure-Ground

    • D) Proximity

  5. Which depth cue relies on the brain detecting differences in images between both eyes?

    • A) Interposition

    • B) Linear perspective

    • C) Retinal disparity

    • D) Relative motion

Answer Key (Module 17)

  1. B) Sensation detects stimuli; perception interprets stimuli

  2. B) Becoming unaware of a strong perfume scent after a few minutes

  3. C) Reading messy handwriting and understanding it due to context

  4. B) Closure

  5. C) Retinal disparity

Final Notes for Module 17

This module covered:
✔ The difference between sensation and perception
✔ How sensory organs process information
✔ Thresholds and sensory adaptation
✔ Gestalt psychology and perceptual organization
✔ Depth perception cues for 3D vision

 

 

Application-Based Multiple Choice Questions (Modules 1-17)

1. A psychologist is studying how children’s behavior changes after observing aggressive role models on television. Which psychological perspective is she using?

  • A) Cognitive

  • B) Behavioral

  • C) Humanistic

  • D) Psychodynamic

2. If a researcher wants to study cause-and-effect relationships between sleep deprivation and memory retention, which research method should they use?

  • A) Case study

  • B) Correlational study

  • C) Experimental study

  • D) Naturalistic observation

3. A patient with severe epilepsy has their corpus callosum severed. What effect will this likely have?

  • A) They will lose the ability to hear

  • B) Their brain hemispheres will no longer communicate directly

  • C) They will have increased memory recall

  • D) They will lose all language comprehension

4. After experiencing damage to his hippocampus, Mark is unable to form new memories but can still recall his childhood. What condition does this describe?

  • A) Retrograde amnesia

  • B) Anterograde amnesia

  • C) Dissociative identity disorder

  • D) Generalized anxiety disorder

5. What is the primary function of the sympathetic nervous system?

  • A) Slow the heart rate and conserve energy

  • B) Process sensory information

  • C) Activate the body's fight-or-flight response

  • D) Regulate voluntary muscle movements

6. In an experiment, participants do not know whether they are receiving the actual drug or a placebo, but the researchers do. What type of study is this?

  • A) Single-blind study

  • B) Double-blind study

  • C) Correlational study

  • D) Case study

7. Which neurotransmitter is linked to movement and reward, and is implicated in Parkinson’s disease and schizophrenia?

  • A) Serotonin

  • B) Dopamine

  • C) Acetylcholine

  • D) GABA

8. A person who loses their balance after inner ear damage is likely experiencing issues with which sense?

  • A) Kinesthetic

  • B) Vestibular

  • C) Olfactory

  • D) Gustatory

9. According to Weber’s Law, which of the following changes would be easiest to notice?

  • A) Increasing a TV’s volume from 3 to 6

  • B) Increasing a TV’s volume from 30 to 33

  • C) Adding 1 pound to a 50-pound dumbbell

  • D) Removing one drop of food coloring from a cup of water

10. In an experiment, the group that receives no treatment is known as the:

  • A) Independent variable

  • B) Experimental group

  • C) Dependent variable

  • D) Control group

11. If a baby stops responding to a repeated stimulus over time, this is an example of:

  • A) Sensory adaptation

  • B) Habituation

  • C) Classical conditioning

  • D) Operant conditioning

12. A person suddenly falls into REM sleep without warning. What sleep disorder do they have?

  • A) Sleep apnea

  • B) Narcolepsy

  • C) Insomnia

  • D) Night terrors

13. The cocktail party effect demonstrates:

  • A) Selective attention

  • B) Sensory adaptation

  • C) Perceptual constancy

  • D) Top-down processing

14. Which psychological approach emphasizes free will and self-actualization?

  • A) Psychoanalytic

  • B) Humanistic

  • C) Behavioral

  • D) Cognitive

15. A child who is raised in an environment with little stimulation is likely to experience:

  • A) Increased neural connections

  • B) Weakened synaptic growth

  • C) Enhanced cognitive abilities

  • D) A more developed frontal lobe

16. Damage to the occipital lobe would most likely result in:

  • A) Loss of speech

  • B) Impaired vision

  • C) Memory loss

  • D) Difficulty moving limbs

17. Which of the following best describes the function of the myelin sheath?

  • A) Produces neurotransmitters

  • B) Speeds up neural impulses

  • C) Absorbs excess neurotransmitters

  • D) Inhibits signal transmission

18. The process of acquiring new and relatively enduring information or behaviors is called:

  • A) Sensation

  • B) Learning

  • C) Perception

  • D) Cognition

19. What is the most important difference between operant and classical conditioning?

  • A) Classical conditioning involves voluntary behavior

  • B) Operant conditioning involves rewards and punishments

  • C) Classical conditioning depends on consequences

  • D) Operant conditioning is automatic

20. A toddler refuses to touch a hot stove after getting burned before. This demonstrates:

  • A) Observational learning

  • B) Negative reinforcement

  • C) Classical conditioning

  • D) Positive punishment

21. In an emergency, which neurotransmitter would be most active?

  • A) Acetylcholine

  • B) GABA

  • C) Norepinephrine

  • D) Endorphins

22. Damage to Broca’s area would primarily affect:

  • A) Balance

  • B) Language production

  • C) Memory

  • D) Hearing

23. The ability to perceive depth using just one eye relies on:

  • A) Retinal disparity

  • B) Monocular cues

  • C) Convergence

  • D) Binocular cues

24. The process by which we detect and encode environmental stimuli is called:

  • A) Sensation

  • B) Perception

  • C) Cognition

  • D) Adaptation

25. A toddler who believes that “all small animals are dogs” is demonstrating:

  • A) Assimilation

  • B) Accommodation

  • C) Object permanence

  • D) Conservation

26. According to Erikson, a young adult who struggles to form close relationships is experiencing:

  • A) Role confusion

  • B) Generativity vs. stagnation

  • C) Integrity vs. despair

  • D) Intimacy vs. isolation

27. A person who sees a partial drawing of a face but recognizes it as a complete face is using which Gestalt principle?

  • A) Proximity

  • B) Closure

  • C) Similarity

  • D) Continuity

28. According to Piaget, which stage involves the development of abstract thinking?

  • A) Sensorimotor

  • B) Preoperational

  • C) Concrete operational

  • D) Formal operational

29. Which neurotransmitter is most associated with mood regulation?

  • A) Dopamine

  • B) GABA

  • C) Serotonin

  • D) Acetylcholine

30. Which psychological perspective would study how cultural expectations influence human behavior?

  • A) Behavioral

  • B) Psychodynamic

  • C) Sociocultural

  • D) Biological

Answer Key

  1. B, 2. C, 3. B, 4. B, 5. C, 6. A, 7. B, 8. B, 9. A, 10. D, 11. B, 12. B, 13. A, 14. B, 15. B, 16. B, 17. B, 18. B, 19. B, 20. C, 21. C, 22. B, 23. B, 24. A, 25. A, 26. D, 27. B, 28. D, 29. C, 30. C