Unit 6

1. Missouri Compromise

• Who proposed it? Henry Clay proposed the Missouri Compromise.

• What was the major issue? The major issue was maintaining the balance of power between free states and slave states in the U.S. Senate as new territories applied for statehood, specifically dealing with the issue of slavery's expansion into western territories.

• What were the 3 provisions of it?

  1. Missouri admitted as a slave state: Missouri joined the Union as a state where slavery was permitted.

  2. Maine admitted as a free state: Maine joined the Union as a state where slavery was prohibited, thus preserving the balance of 12 free states and 12 slave states.

  3. 36°30′ parallel established: Slavery was prohibited in the remaining Louisiana Purchase territory north of the 36°30′ parallel, with the exception of Missouri itself.

2. Wilmot Proviso's Importance

The Wilmot Proviso was important, even though it didn't pass through Congress, because it:

• Heightened sectional tensions: It sparked a major national debate over the expansion of slavery into territories acquired from Mexico after the Mexican-American War. Northerners generally supported it, while Southerners vehemently opposed it, further solidifying the growing divide between the sections.

• Introduced the idea of federal control over slavery in territories: It was one of the first significant attempts by the federal government to restrict slavery, setting a precedent for future debates and demonstrating the political power of the anti-slavery movement.

• Showcased the intensity of the slavery debate: Its repeated introduction and failure highlighted how deeply entrenched and unyielding both sides of the slavery debate had become, foreshadowing future conflicts.

3. Popular Sovereignty

Popular sovereignty is the principle that the authority of a state and its government are created and sustained by the consent of its people, through their elected representatives, who are the source of all political power. In the context of slavery in the mid-19th century United States, popular sovereignty referred to the idea that the residents of a territory should be allowed to decide (vote) whether or not to permit slavery within their borders, rather than having Congress make that decision.

4. Compromise of 1850

• Who designed the Compromise of 1850? Henry Clay initially proposed the Compromise of 1850, and after his proposals failed, Stephen Douglas helped shepherd individual bills through Congress to achieve its passage.

• What were the 3 major parts of it?

  1. California admitted as a free state: California joined the Union as a free state.

  2. Popular sovereignty in New Mexico and Utah territories: The territories of New Mexico and Utah were organized, and the issue of slavery within them would be decided by popular sovereignty (the residents themselves would vote).

  3. Fugitive Slave Act strengthened: A stricter Fugitive Slave Act was enacted, requiring citizens and law enforcement in free states to assist in the capture and return of escaped slaves.

• What was the most controversial part of the Compromise? The most controversial part of the Compromise of 1850 was the Fugitive Slave Act. It was deeply resented by Northerners, who felt it compelled them to participate in the institution of slavery against their moral convictions. It led to increased abolitionist sentiment and resistance efforts, such as the Underground Railroad.

5. Kansas-Nebraska Act Provisions and Consequences

• What are the provisions of Kansas-Nebraska Act?

  • It organized the territories of Kansas and Nebraska.

  • It repealed the Missouri Compromise line of 36°30′ north of which slavery was prohibited.

  • It applied the principle of popular sovereignty to both Kansas and Nebraska, allowing the residents of each territory to decide for themselves whether to allow slavery.

• What does this lead to? This leads to "Bleeding Kansas". Abolitionists and pro-slavery settlers rushed into Kansas, each aiming to establish a majority and influence the vote on slavery. This resulted in widespread violence, electoral fraud, and a mini-civil war in the territory during the mid-1850s.

6. Dred Scott v. Sandford Verdict and Impact

• What was the verdict on the Dred Scott case? In the 1857 Dred Scott v. Sandford decision, the Supreme Court, led by Chief Justice Roger B. Taney, ruled:

  1. African Americans, whether enslaved or free, were not citizens of the United States and therefore could not sue in federal court.

  2. Enslaved people were property, and Congress had no power to prohibit slavery in federal territories, thus declaring the Missouri Compromise unconstitutional.

  3. Residing in a free territory did not make an enslaved person free.

• How does this affect slavery in the US? This decision had profound effects on slavery in the U.S.:

  • Invalidated popular sovereignty: It essentially made popular sovereignty unworkable, as it stated Congress (and by extension, territorial legislatures) could not ban slavery in territories, regardless of votes.

  • Expanded slavery's reach nationally: It implied that slavery could legally exist anywhere in the territories and reinforced the idea that enslavers could take their property (slaves) into any territory and expect protection under the law.

  • Further inflamed sectional tensions: Northerners were outraged, viewing it as a victory for the "Slave Power" and a threat to free states. Southerners largely celebrated it as a validation of their property rights.

  • Undermined efforts to restrict slavery: It severely hampered any legislative attempts to limit the expansion of slavery and pushed the nation closer to civil conflict.

7. Sectionalism

Sectionalism refers to a devotion to the interests of one's own geographic region or section of the country, rather than to the interests of the country as a whole. In the context of the antebellum United States, it describes the growing divide between the industrial North and the agrarian, slave-holding South, which led to distinct political, economic, and social identities and conflicting interests, especially regarding issues like tariffs, internal improvements, and the expansion of slavery.

8. Abolition

Abolition refers to the movement to end slavery. In the United States, the abolitionist movement of the 19th century sought the immediate and complete emancipation of all enslaved people and the extension of civil rights to former slaves.

9. Impact of Key Abolitionists

• Harriet Tubman: Known as "Moses of her people," Harriet Tubman was an escaped slave who became a leading "conductor" on the Underground Railroad, a network of secret routes and safe houses used by enslaved African Americans to escape to free states and Canada. She personally risked her life to lead over 300 enslaved people to freedom, making her a powerful symbol of resistance and courage against slavery. Her actions directly undermined the institution by freeing individuals and inspiring others.

• Harriet Beecher Stowe: Her novel, Uncle Tom's Cabin, published in 1852, depicted the brutal realities of slavery, particularly the suffering of enslaved families. The book became an international bestseller and had a profound emotional impact on millions, particularly in the North, galvanizing anti-slavery sentiment and broadening public awareness of the moral evils of slavery. It is often credited with intensifying the movement and contributing to the outbreak of the Civil War.

• John Brown: A radical abolitionist, John Brown believed that armed insurrection was the only way to end slavery. His most famous act was the 1859 raid on the federal arsenal at Harpers Ferry, Virginia (now West Virginia), where he attempted to seize weapons to arm a slave uprising. Although the raid failed and he was captured and executed, Brown became a martyr for the abolitionist cause in the North and a symbol of terror for the South, deeply intensifying sectional distrust and fear.

10. John Brown's Raid Location and Effect

• Where did John Brown’s raid occur? John Brown's raid occurred at Harpers Ferry, Virginia (now West Virginia).

• What was the major effect it had on the South? The major effect of John Brown's raid on the South was that it intensified Southern fears of abolitionist conspiracies and slave rebellions. Southerners saw Brown as a terrorist backed by Northern money and believed that the North was actively seeking to incite violence and destroy their way of life. This event further alienated the South from the Union, accelerating the move towards secession and solidifying the perception that peaceful coexistence was impossible.

11. Lincoln's Achievement in Lincoln-Douglas Debates

Even though he lost the senate election to Stephen Douglas in 1858, Abraham Lincoln achieved significant national recognition through the Lincoln-Douglas debates. The debates elevated his public profile and established him as a articulate and formidable opponent of the expansion of slavery, particularly with his clear moral arguments against the institution. This national exposure paved the way for his presidential nomination in 1860.

12. Election of 1860 and Southern Secession

The election of 1860 caused the South to secede primarily because Abraham Lincoln, a Republican, was elected president without a single Southern electoral vote. Southerners viewed Lincoln's election as a direct threat to their way of life and the institution of slavery. They believed that the Republican Party, with its anti-slavery platform, would eventually abolish slavery, even though Lincoln had only pledged to prevent its expansion. Fearing the loss of their property and political power, Southern states felt their only recourse was to withdraw from the Union.

13. Confederacy Capital and President

• Where was the capital of the Confederacy? The capital of the Confederacy was Richmond, Virginia.

• Who was the Confederate president? The Confederate president was Jefferson Davis.

14. First Shots of the Civil War

• Where were the first shots of the Civil War fired? The first shots of the Civil War were fired at Fort Sumter, Charleston Harbor, South Carolina.

• What does this lead to? This leads to the outbreak of the full-scale Civil War. After the Confederate attack and Union surrender at Fort Sumter, Lincoln called for 75,000 volunteers to suppress the rebellion. This act prompted more Southern states (Virginia, North Carolina, Arkansas, and Tennessee) to secede and join the Confederacy, firmly drawing lines for the impending conflict.

15. Writ of Habeas Corpus and Lincoln's Use

• What is the writ of habeas corpus? The writ of habeas corpus is a legal order requiring a person who has been arrested or imprisoned to be brought before a judge or into court. The purpose of the writ is to ensure that a prisoner can be released from unlawful detention (i.e., detention that is without sufficient cause or evidence).

• How does President Lincoln use it? President Lincoln used it by suspending the writ of habeas corpus during the Civil War, primarily in border states and other areas where there was strong Confederate sympathy or disruption to the Union war effort. This allowed the Union military to arrest and detain suspected Confederate sympathizers, spies, and those interfering with the war effort without immediately bringing them before a judge or formally charging them. His justification was to protect national security and preserve the Union during a time of rebellion.

16. Martial Law and Lincoln's Declaration

• What is martial law? Martial law is the temporary imposition of direct military control over normal civilian functions, usually by a government in an emergency situation. It typically involves the suspension of ordinary law and the exercise of government and judicial functions by the military.

• Where does Lincoln declare this? Why? Lincoln declared martial law in various border states, especially Maryland, early in the war. He declared it because Maryland, a slave state bordering the Union capital (Washington D.C.), had strong Confederate sympathies, and the loyalty of its citizens was in question. Key infrastructure, such as railroad lines vital for troop and supply movement, ran through Maryland. Lincoln used martial law to ensure Maryland's loyalty, suppress rebellion, protect the capital, and keep critical transportation routes open to prevent Washington D.C. from being isolated or falling to the Confederacy.

17. First Major Battle and Lessons Learned

• What was the first major battle of the Civil War? The first major battle of the Civil War was the First Battle of Bull Run (or First Manassas) in July 1861.

• Who won? The Confederacy won the battle.

• What do we learn about the length of the war from this battle? From this battle, both sides learned that the war would not be short or easily won, but would be a long, brutal, and costly conflict. Before Bull Run, many believed the war would be over in a few months. The disorganized but fierce fighting, and the high casualties, disabused both North and South of this notion, signaling a prolonged struggle.

18. The Anaconda Plan

The Anaconda Plan was the Union's strategic plan to defeat the Confederacy, devised by General Winfield Scott. Its three main parts were:

1. Naval Blockade: Establish a naval blockade of Confederate ports to prevent the South from importing manufactured goods and exporting cotton, thereby crippling its economy.

2. Control the Mississippi River: Gain control of the Mississippi River to split the Confederacy in two, isolating Texas, Arkansas, and Louisiana from the eastern Confederate states.

3. Capture Richmond: Capture the Confederate capital of Richmond, Virginia, to neutralize the Confederate government and military leadership.

19. Significance of the Battle of Antietam

The Battle of Antietam (September 1862) is significant for several reasons:

• Bloodiest single day in American history: It remains the single bloodiest day in American military history, with over 23,000 casualties on both sides.

• Union strategic victory: Although tactically indecisive, it was a crucial strategic victory for the Union. General Robert E. Lee's first invasion of the North was repelled, forcing his Confederate army to retreat back into Virginia.

• Led to the Emancipation Proclamation: President Lincoln had been waiting for a significant Union victory to issue the Emancipation Proclamation without it appearing as an act of desperation. Antietam provided this opportunity.

• Prevented foreign intervention: The Union victory discouraged Great Britain and France from recognizing the Confederacy and intervening on its behalf, as they were less likely to support a cause that appeared to be losing and represented slavery.

20. Emancipation Proclamation

• Who did the Emancipation Proclamation free? The Emancipation Proclamation, issued by President Lincoln on January 1, 1863, declared that all enslaved people in the Confederate states currently in rebellion against the Union were free. It did not immediately free slaves in the border states or in Union-occupied territories, as those areas were not in rebellion.

• Which states were allowed to keep their slaves? Slave-holding states that remained loyal to the Union (Delaware, Maryland, Kentucky, Missouri) and Confederate territories already under Union control were allowed to keep their slaves.

• How did this refocus the Union’s goal of the war? This refocused the Union's goal of the war from solely preserving the Union to also encompassing the abolition of slavery. It transformed the conflict into a moral crusade against slavery, giving the Union cause a higher purpose and strengthening the resolve of anti-slavery Northerners. It also encouraged enslaved people to flee to Union lines, weakening the Confederacy's labor force.

21. Major Turning Points of the War

• What two battles are known as the major turning points of the war? The two battles known as the major turning points of the war are the Battle of Gettysburg (July 1-3, 1863) in Pennsylvania and the Siege of Vicksburg (May 18 - July 4, 1863) in Mississippi.

• Why are they turning points?

  • Gettysburg: This was a decisive Union victory that definitively ended Confederate General Robert E. Lee's second and final invasion of the North. The massive casualties suffered by the Confederacy, particularly during Pickett's Charge, crippled Lee's army, and it would never again launch a major offensive into Union territory. It marked the high-water mark of the Confederacy.

  • Vicksburg: The Union capture of Vicksburg, led by Ulysses S. Grant, gave the Union complete control of the Mississippi River. This split the Confederacy in two, isolating Texas, Louisiana, and Arkansas from the rest of the Confederate states, severely disrupting their supply lines and communication. It completed the second part of the Anaconda Plan.

Together, these two victories, occurring almost simultaneously, severely damaged the Confederacy's will and ability to fight, effectively putting them on the defensive for the remainder of the war.

22. Union Commander and Lee's Surrender Location

• Who is appointed Union Commander of the East near the end of the war? Ulysses S. Grant was appointed General-in-Chief of all Union armies in March 1864, effectively making him the commander of the East while also overseeing the western campaigns.

• Where does he accept Lee’s surrender? Grant accepted Lee's surrender at Appomattox Court House, Virginia, on April 9, 1865.

23. Sherman's Campaign in Georgia

• Why is it important for Sherman to take control of Atlanta? It was important for William Tecumseh Sherman to take control of Atlanta because it was a major Confederate railroad hub, industrial center, and supply depot. Its capture was a critical strategic victory that severely crippled the Confederacy's ability to wage war by cutting off vital supply lines and manufacturing capabilities. It also significantly boosted Northern morale and played a crucial role in Lincoln's re-election in 1864.

• What does he proceed to do after capturing Atlanta? After capturing Atlanta, Sherman proceeded to embark on his "March to the Sea." This involved a destructive campaign from Atlanta to Savannah, Georgia, where his forces practiced total war, destroying civilian infrastructure, plantations, and anything that could support the Confederate war effort. The goal was to break the South's will to fight and reduce its economic capacity.

24. Lincoln's Second Inaugural Address

After winning the election of 1864, Lincoln's Second Inaugural Address (March 1865) stressed themes of reconciliation, unity, and a more magnanimous peace. He acknowledged that slavery was the root cause of the war and expressed a deep desire for national healing "with malice toward none, with charity for all." He urged Americans to "bind up the nation's wounds" and work towards a just and lasting peace, implicitly laying groundwork for a lenient Reconstruction policy.

25. Presidential vs. Congressional (Radical) Reconstruction

Here are the differences between Presidential Reconstruction and Congressional (Radical) Reconstruction:

• Pardons for ex-Confederates (Johnson)

• States must ratify 13th Amendment & repudiate war debts | - Reconstruction Acts of 1867 (divided South into military districts)

• Protection of Freedmen's Bureau

• Civil Rights Act of 1866

• 14th Amendment (citizenship & equal protection)

• 15th Amendment (voting rights for Black men) |
  | Black Codes | Permitted Southern states to enact Black Codes (Johnson did not stop them) | Strongly opposed Black Codes and sought to dismantle them |

26. Purpose of the Freedmen's Bureau

The Freedmen's Bureau (officially the Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen, and Abandoned Lands) was established in March 1865 by Congress. Its primary purpose was to provide immediate relief and support to newly freed African Americans (freedmen) and impoverished white Southerners displaced by the Civil War. Its services included:

• Food and medical aid: Distributing rations and providing healthcare.

• Education: Establishing thousands of schools and providing teachers for freedmen and their children, leading to a significant increase in literacy.

• Labor contracts: Assisting freedmen in negotiating fair labor contracts with landowners, trying to prevent exploitation.

• Land redistribution (initially): Though largely unsuccessful, it initially aimed to settle freedmen on abandoned or confiscated Confederate lands.

• Legal assistance: Protecting freedmen from violence and discrimination and helping them prove legal marriages, etc.

27. President Johnson's Impeachment

President Andrew Johnson was impeached by the House of Representatives primarily for "high crimes and misdemeanors" related to his violation of the Tenure of Office Act. This act, passed by the Radical Republicans in Congress (over Johnson's veto), required the President to seek Senate approval before removing any cabinet member confirmed by the Senate. Johnson deliberately defied this act by attempting to fire his Secretary of War, Edwin Stanton, who was a Radical Republican ally. More broadly, Johnson was impeached because of his consistent obstruction of Congressional (Radical) Reconstruction policies and his clashes with Congress over the treatment of the South and the rights of freedmen. He was acquitted by the Senate by one vote, thus remaining in office.

28. Black Codes

Black Codes were a series of restrictive laws passed by Southern state legislatures immediately after the Civil War (during Presidential Reconstruction). We see them enacted throughout the former Confederate states, such as Mississippi, South Carolina, and Louisiana. Their purpose was to control the labor and behavior of newly freed African Americans and maintain white supremacy. While they granted some rights (like marriage), they severely limited others, attempting to force freedmen into a labor system as close to slavery as possible. Common provisions included:

• Vagrancy laws: Arresting and fining unemployed black men and forcing them into involuntary labor if they couldn't pay.

• Labor contracts: Requiring annual labor contracts, often with harsh penalties for breaking them.

• Prohibition on land ownership: Restricting or banning Black people from owning land.

• Restrictions on movement: Requiring freedmen to show proof of employment or residence.

• Limitations on legal rights: Restricting testimony in court to only cases involving other Black people.

29. 13th, 14th, and 15th Amendments

• 13th Amendment (1865): This amendment abolished slavery and involuntary servitude throughout the United States, except as punishment for a crime. It formally ended the institution of slavery in the country.

• 14th Amendment (1868): This amendment granted citizenship to all persons born or naturalized in the United States, including former slaves (thus overturning the Dred Scott decision). It also guaranteed "due process of law" and "equal protection of the laws" to all citizens, meaning states could not infringe upon their basic rights or treat them unequally under the law. It was a cornerstone of civil rights legislation for African Americans.

• 15th Amendment (1870): This amendment declared that the right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude. It aimed to secure voting rights for African American men, though it did not include women.

30. Sharecropping and its Effect on Freedmen

Sharecropping was a system of agriculture that emerged in the South after the Civil War. Landowners would lease portions of their land to tenant farmers (often freedmen) in exchange for a share of the crop produced on that land. The landowner typically provided tools, seeds, and sometimes housing, while the sharecropper provided the labor.

How does it affect Freedmen in the South during Reconstruction? Sharecropping severely affected freedmen by often trapping them in a cycle of debt and economic dependency that was very similar to slavery.

• Debt peonage: Freedmen often had to buy supplies (food, tools, etc.) on credit from the landowner's store, with high interest rates. Since the harvest might not be enough to cover the debt, they often ended up owing money to the landowner at the end of the year, legally binding them to the land for the next season.

• Lack of economic independence: It prevented freedmen from accumulating wealth or owning their own land, limiting their economic mobility and perpetuating poverty.

• Limited autonomy: Landowners often dictated what crops were grown and how much, limiting the freedmen's ability to make their own agricultural decisions.

• Exploitation: The system was often rigged in favor of the landowner, with unfair accounting practices that kept sharecroppers perpetually indebted.

31. Compromise of 1877 and End of Reconstruction

What was the Compromise of 1877? The Compromise of 1877 was an informal and unwritten agreement that resolved the intensely disputed 1876 presidential election between Republican Rutherford B. Hayes and Democrat Samuel J. Tilden. There were contested electoral votes in Florida, Louisiana, and South Carolina, and both parties claimed victory. The Compromise essentially involved:

• Hayes becomes President: Democrats agreed not to block Rutherford B. Hayes's electoral victory and his inauguration as president.

• Withdrawal of federal troops: In return, Republicans agreed to withdraw all remaining federal troops from the Southern states (South Carolina, Florida, and Louisiana).

• Southern benefits: Other unwritten agreements included the appointment of at least one Southerner to Hayes' cabinet, federal funding for southern internal improvements, and a promise to allow Southerners to control patronage in their states.

How did it end Reconstruction? The Compromise of 1877 effectively marked the end of Reconstruction. The withdrawal of federal troops removed the last significant federal presence upholding Republican governments and protecting the rights of African Americans in the South. Without federal protection, white Democrats (Redeemers) quickly regained full political control across the South, instituting policies that:

• Disfranchised Black voters: Implemented poll taxes, literacy tests, and grandfather clauses.

• Enforced racial segregation: Established Jim Crow laws.

• Suppressed civil rights: Allowed for the rise of violence and intimidation against African Americans.

The "Redemption" of the South by white Democrats paved the way for nearly a century of racial segregation and oppression.