MI End of Course Exam Review Flashcards

1.1 Medical Interventions and Infectious Agents

• Medical interventions help maintain health and homeostasis.
• Various methods detect and/or identify infectious agents.
• Essential questions to consider:
  • What is a medical intervention?
  • What are the categories of interventions that maintain human health?
  • How do scientists gather evidence during an infectious disease outbreak?
  • What is bioinformatics?
  • How are DNA sequences used to identify disease pathogens?
  • What is an antibody?
  • How do antibodies identify and inactivate antigens?
  • How can the ELISA assay be used to detect disease?
  • Why is the concentration of disease antigen important?
  • What steps diagnose, treat, and prevent disease outbreaks?

1.2 Antibiotics and Bacterial Resistance

• Antibiotics disrupt bacterial survival pathways.
• Bacteria use multiple pathways to gain antibiotic resistance.
• Overuse of antibiotics promotes the selection of resistant bacteria.
• Essential questions to consider:
  • How do antibiotics fight bacterial infections?
  • How do bacteria share antibiotic resistant genes?
  • What human actions contribute to antibiotic resistance?

1.3 Hearing Loss and Interventions

• Ear structure problems cause various types of hearing loss.
• Interventions are available to help people with hearing loss.
• Essential questions to consider:
  • How do frequency and amplitude affect sound interpretation?
  • What causes different types of hearing loss?
  • How is hearing loss diagnosed?
  • What interventions are available for hearing loss?
  • What are the bioethical concerns related to cochlear implants?

1.4 Vaccines and Epidemiology

• Vaccines activate the immune system to recognize disease antigens and produce antibodies.
• Vaccines can be produced using recombinant DNA techniques.
• Epidemiologists monitor health, search for patterns, assist in investigations, and design treatment and prevention strategies.
• Essential questions to consider:
  • What is vaccination?
  • How does a vaccine activate the immune system?
  • How has vaccination impacted disease trends?
  • What methods produce vaccines in the laboratory?
  • What is recombinant DNA technology?
  • What are the molecular tools used to assemble recombinant DNA?
  • How can recombinant DNA and bacterial cells produce vaccines?
  • How can engineered plasmids be inserted into bacterial cells?
  • What is epidemiology?
  • How can epidemiologists assist with the detection, prevention, and treatment of both chronic and infectious disease?

Mystery Infection & Medical Interventions

• A medical intervention is anything used to treat, prevent, cure, or relieve symptoms of human suffering.
• A medical intervention improves health or alters the course of an illness, used to prevent, diagnose, and treat disease.
• Categories of medical interventions: genetics, pharmacology, diagnostics, surgery, immunology, medical devices, and rehabilitation.
• The medical investigation routine: symptoms, diagnosis, tests, and treatments.
• In the case of an outbreak, it's important to determine whether or not the disease has spread, and how to manage it if it has.
• Signs: Measurable and recordable client issues (temperature, heart rate, blood pressure, rash, swollen glands, etc.).
• Symptoms: Problems the patient reports (tiredness, sore throat, nausea, etc.).
• Finding "Patient 0" helps determine disease, spread, and exposure.

Confirming Diagnosis

• Need to confirm diagnosis to avoid unnecessary treatment, antibiotic resistance, and misdiagnosis.
• Bioinformatics: Collection, classification, storage, and analysis of biochemical and biological information using computers, can be used to identify disease pathogens.
• BLAST is used as a form of DNA sequencing to scan DNA.
• Isolate the disease-causing agent by taking a sample such as cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) via spinal tap for meningitis.
• Process CSF to separate human components from disease-causing agents.
• "Plating" CSF allows bacteria to grow outside the human body.
• If bacteria grow, that’s a sign something is wrong.
• Bacteria are lysed (blown up) and their DNA is isolated and amplified, then run through a DNA sequencing machine.
• The machine produces a string of letters (A, T, C, and G) which is then input into BLAST.
• BLAST compares the DNA sequences to its database to identify the agent.
• In the case of bacterial meningitis, another test done to confirm the diagnosis is called ELISA.

ELISA

• ELISA: Enzyme-linked Immunosorbent Assay uses the body’s immune responses to identify illness.
• Antigen: A type of protein on the outside of every living cell.
• Antibody: Produced by B lymphocytes, attach to foreign antigens and neutralize them, signaling other leukocytes to destroy the pathogen.
• ELISA test is based on the concept that color changes mean a positive result, with stronger colors meaning more of what’s being tested for.
• ELISA test process:
  • A pre-treated tray full of small wells are coated with antibodies for the pathogen being studied.
  • Serum of patients is added to wells. If serum contains the bacteria, antigens on the outside of cells will bind to antibodies, trapping the antigens on the wells.
  • Primary antibody is added to latch on to the antigen, forming a platform.
  • Secondary antigen with an enzyme attached is added.
  • A substrate is added; the enzyme responds to it and causes a color change.
  • A color change means the antigen (infection) is present; this is a qualitative result.
• The intensity of the color indicates the degree of infection; this is quantitative.
• Serial dilution: A known concentration of antigen is diluted to compare to ELISA results, creating a series of colors from darker to lighter.
• Patient samples are compared to serial dilutions to determine the amount of infectious agent.

Antibiotic Treatment

• Bacterial infections are treated with antibiotics.
• Antibiotics work by disrupting the pathways that bacteria use to survive – stopping bacteria from reproducing, inhibiting protein synthesis, or disrupting the cell wall.
• Gram-positive bacteria: Have a thick cell wall made of peptidoglycan.
• Gram-negative bacteria: Have a much thinner cell wall.
• Bacteria are classified into the above two groups, distinguished by the structure of their cell walls.
• Gram Negative Bacteria:
  • The cell wall contains multiple layers, including a thin layer of peptidoglycan.
  • The outside layer is called the outer membrane, which is made of a lipid bilayer whose outside is composed of lipopolysaccharides called endotoxins.
  • The outer membrane serves as a barrier to the passage of most molecules and contains specialized proteins, called porins, which allow certain molecules to pass through the membrane.
  • The region between the plasma membrane and the outer membrane is called the periplasm and is filled with a gel-like fluid and proteins involved in a variety of cellular activities.
  • The Gram-stained cell is pinkish-red.
• Gram Positive Bacteria:
  • The cell wall contains a thick layer of peptidoglycan and teichoic acids. There is approximately twenty times more peptidoglycan than the Gram negative bacteria.
  • There is no outer membrane present.
  • There are no porins present.
  • The Gram-stained cell is purple.
• Cellular components and their functions:
  • Nucleoid: Gel-like region containing the single, circular, double-stranded DNA molecule; contains all the genetic information.
  • Plasmids: Circular double-stranded DNA molecules which often code for proteins advantageous to the cell; can be transferred between bacterial cells.
  • Ribosomes: Structures involved in protein synthesis.
  • Cell Wall: A rigid barrier that surrounds the cell, keeping the contents from bursting out. Peptidoglycan provides the rigidity for the cell wall.
  • Plasma Membrane: Semipermeable membrane that surrounds the cytoplasm of the cell.
  • Capsule: A distinct and gelatinous layer enabling the bacterial cell to adhere to specific surfaces and sometimes protects bacterial cells from human immune systems.
  • Flagella: Protein appendages that spin like propellers, moving the bacterial cell forward.
  • Pili: Filamentous appendages which enable the bacterial cell to attach to a specific surface or are involved in conjugation (DNA transfer).
  • Endotoxins: Lipopolysaccharide molecules that make-up the outer leaflet of the outer membrane of Gram negative bacteria.
• Antibiotics disrupt the pathways bacteria use to survive by stopping reproduction, inhibiting protein synthesis, or disrupting the cell wall.
• Different antibiotics work differently because not all antibiotics work on all bacteria.
• Targets of Antibiotics: Bacterial cell walls, proteins, metabolic pathways, and the integrity of the cytoplasmic membrane.
• Antibacterial Medication and Mode of Action:
  • β-Lactam Antibiotics: Irreversibly inhibit enzymes involved in cell wall synthesis. More active against Gram positive bacteria.
  • Tetracyclines: Reversibly bind to the 30S ribosomal subunit, preventing protein synthesis. Effective against certain Gram positive and Gram negative bacteria.
  • Fluoroquinolones: Inhibit enzymes that maintain the supercoiling of chromosomal DNA. Active against a wide variety of bacteria, including both Gram positive and Gram negative bacteria.
  • Sulfonamides: Inhibit the growth of many Gram positive and Gram negative bacteria by competitively binding with the enzyme that normally binds with PABA in folic acid biosynthesis. Human cells are not affected by these drugs because they lack this enzyme.

Antibiotic Resistance

• Bacteria can evolve and become immune to antibiotics, developing mutations and mutating protein production.
• Bacteria share plasmids containing antibiotic-resistant genes through transduction, transformation, and conjugation:
  • Conjugation (bacteria sex): Bacteria link pili, forming a bridge and exchanging a plasmid.s
  • Transformation: Plasmids carrying antibiotic-resistant genes are scavenged from a dead bacterial cell.
  • Transduction: Resistance is “delivered” to bacteria using some sort of vector
• There is concern about how antibiotics are used. Antibiotics are added to chicken and cow feed to prevent the animals from getting sick before sale which can contribute to antibiotic resistant strains of bacteria.

Hearing Loss

• The ear plays a role in both hearing and balance.
• The vestibule of the ear houses the semicircular canals for sensing up, down, and sideways.
• Body position shifts fluids around in this area, allowing you to sense your position in space.
• The Eustachian tube maintains pressure within the inside and outside of the ear.
• Hearing loss affects millions of people and impacts communication.
• There are sensorineural hearing loss, conductive hearing loss, and mixed hearing loss. Hearing loss has many causes and in many cases can even be prevented.
• Sound travel through air, water, or bone.
  • Intensity (loudness) is measured in decibels.
  • Frequency is the number of sound waves; high frequency = more waves = higher pitch.
  • Amplitude is how high the waves are; high amplitude = loudness.
• Pinna Sound is collected in the outer shell of the ear called the pinna.
• Sound travels in air through the auditory canal until it reaches the tympanic membrane (the eardrum), causing it to vibrate
• The ossicles (earbones) then vibrate: malleus, incus, and stapes.
• The stapes hits the oval window, pushing on the fluid inside the cochlea to vibrate in the form of a fluid wave, stimulating sensory hair cells.
• The hair cells sends a signal to the cochlear nerve, which sends a signal to the brain so sounds can be interpreted.

Types of Hearing Loss

• Conductive hearing loss is caused by damage to the wave-carrying portions of the ear (pinna, auditory canal, tympanic membrane, or ossicles), involving a reduction in sound level. This type of hearing loss can often be corrected medically or surgically.
• Sensorineural hearing loss involves damage to the cochlea (inner ear) or the auditory nerve; in many cases, it cannot be corrected. It may be caused by repeated exposure to loud noises, an extremely loud noise one time, or aging of the cochlea.
• Mixed hearing loss is a combination of both.
• Hearing aids amplify sounds.
• Cochlear implant: A device inserted surgically to direct sound waves from the fluid in the cochlea to the auditory nerve. The external implant on the head picks up sounds from around the patient. This procedure remains controversial due to high cost, the risk of complete hearing loss, and concerns from the deaf community.
• The Rinne test timer and tuning fork use a timer and a tuning fork to determine the difference between conductive and sensorineural hearing.
• Sensorineural hearing is tested by placing the handle of a tuning fork that has been hit on a table and is humming against the mastoid process on the skull and listening until the sound goes away while timing the length of time the patient can hear.
• When the sound is no longer heard, with no delay, the tuning fork is flipped and the pronged end is placed in front of the ear, with the patient listening again, checking air conduction (conductive hearing), with the tester then noting the time elapsed.
• If hearing is normal, the air conduction will be heard twice as long as bone conduction. If there is conductive hearing loss, bone conduction is heard longer or as long as air conduction.
• A speech in noise test involves listening to speech with a background static of varying types and determining how well the patient is able to detect actual speech under those circumstances. If there is sensorineural hearing loss, hearing the speech will be incredibly difficult or not possible.
• Audiograms detect both sensorineural and conductive hearing loss during a pure tone test using an audiometer.
• Every time the subject hears the beep, they raise a finger or push a button or raise their hand. The tone will continue to get softer and softer until it can no longer be heard – determining the threshold for the patient for a certain frequency. The test is then repeated at other frequencies between 250 and 8000 Hz.
• An audiogram records thresholds, which can be used to detect where hearing loss exists at different frequencies.
• The thresholds are recorded on a graph, called an audiogram, with the frequencies on the x-axis and the hearing thresholds in decibels on the y-axis. The thresholds for the right ear are represented with a red circle and the thresholds for the left ear are represented with a blue ‘X.’
• Hearing levels described from normal hearing, to profound hearing loss:
  • Normal Hearing: 0-20 dB
  • Mild Hearing Loss: 21-40 dB
  • Moderate Hearing Loss: 41-55 dB
  • Moderate to Severe Hearing Loss: 56-70 dB
  • Severe Hearing Loss: 71-90 dB
  • Profound Hearing Loss: >90 dB
• Conductive hearing loss is better with bone conduction than with air conduction. Conductive hearing loss is represented when bone conduction is at least 10 decibels better than air conduction, after it has been determined with a version of the Rinne test.

Vaccination

• Vaccination involves convincing our bodies we have already had the infection by injecting dead, weakened, or modified pathogens to activate the immune system.
• Antigens in the vaccine cause the body to produce antibodies, and a memory cell will remain long after the “infection” is cleared out.
• Vaccinations have reduced the incidence of diseases like smallpox and polio and protect us from the flu and certain types of cancer.
• Six methods to create vaccines:
  • Similar-pathogen vaccine find a virus similar to the one you want to protect against isolate the virus, and inject it “live” into the person being inoculated.
  • Attenuated virus Alterting the virus enough that it is weakened in the human body is also a live vaccine. In the case of measles, the virus is adapted to grow in cold environments.
  • Killed vaccine You kill the virus with heat, radiation, or some other means, then inject dead into your body. The dead virus produces a weak response in the body, not enough for true immunity to set in, which is why boosters are often required.
  • Toxoid vaccine Expose the body to the toxins a pathogen produces, rather than to the pathogen itself. Toxins are extracted from the pathogenic organism and are neutralized so the body isn’t harmed by them. Neutralization can involve chemicals like formaldehyde or aluminum salts.
  • Subunit vaccine Consists of nothing more than a portion of a pathogen - a chunk. A specific “chunk” of virus is chosen for vaccination, and the body recognizes that “chunk” on a pathogen when it encounters it.
  • Naked-DNA vaccine Currently being developed to use in an HIV vaccine. Here, a single gene (which will produce a protein) is selected for vaccination .This gene is amplified and placed into a vector of double-stranded DNA. This DNA is injected into a bacteria, the bacteria grow and are lysed, and the DNA is extracted for injection into the human.

Recombinant DNA

• Recombinant DNA technology: Modifying DNA by adding or removing genes and placing this modified DNA into an organism, letting that organism replicate.
• Selection of a gene of interest.
• Removal of a gene by isolating organism's DNA, using restriction enzymes to cut out a section of DNA and amplify it.
• Seal it with ligated into double-stranded DNA.
• The modified DNA (plasmid) is put into a cell using a chemical or electrical shock.
• Once inside, the plasmid is copied and incorporated.
• This DNA can be extracted from the bacteria after they have been killed and used for the purpose of vaccination, with the DNA injected into the person who needs the vaccine.
• Epidemiology is the study of disease, and epidemiologists monitor the health of populations and search for patterns in disease.

2.1 Genetic Testing

• Genetic testing uses molecular methods to determine if someone has a genetic disorder, will develop one, or is a carrier of a genetic illness.
• Genetic counseling can help a family understand the risks of having a child with a genetic disorder and provide medical facts.
• Prenatal care and monitoring are vital to maternal and child health during pregnancy.
• Essential questions to consider:
  • What is genetic testing?
  • What are the duties of a genetic counselor?
  • What is the goal of PCR?
  • What are the steps of the PCR process?
  • What is the relationship between phenotype and genotype?
  • What are SNPs?
  • How can restriction enzymes and electrophoresis be used to identify SNPs and determine genotype?
  • What medical interventions and lifestyle modifications can help a pregnant woman have a healthy pregnancy?
  • What can amniocentesis and chorionic villus sampling tell a couple about their developing fetus?

2.2 Gene Therapy

• Gene therapy is a disease treatment in which faulty genes are replaced by functional copies.
• Advances in reproductive technology open moral, ethical, and scientific debates.
• Essential questions to consider:
  • How can genetic diseases be cured if scientists could replace faulty genes?
  • What vectors can be used to transfer DNA to human cells?
  • How might gene therapy open the door to genetic enhancement?
  • What medical interventions are available for couples who would like to choose the gender of their child?
  • Should parents be able to design their children?
  • What is the difference between reproductive cloning and therapeutic cloning?
  • What are some of the ethical dilemmas surrounding current and future reproductive technology?
• Genetic testing diagnoses diseases, examines DNA, stresses prenatal care, and explores genetic technology.
• Genetic testing uses molecular methods (DNA sequencing with BLAST, karyotyping, etc.) to determine if someone has a genetic disorder, will develop one, or is a carrier by examining chromosomes or genes for abnormalities.

Genes, Chromosomes, and DNA

• Chromosome: Tightly coiled DNA. The human body contains 23 pairs of chromosomes, inherited from parents.
• Gene: Coding sections of DNA that provide instructions for building proteins.
• Diseases can be caused by chromosomes or defective genes.
• Genetic testing is used to diagnose disease or learn the likelihood of passing them on to children.
• Genetic counselor: Helps individuals and families understand and adjust to a genetic diagnosis or the possibility of a hereditary disorder; they provide information for informed choices.
• Genetic disorders caused by abnormalities in genetic material include single-gene, multifactorial, chromosomal, and mitochondrial.

Types of Genetic Disorders

• Single-gene disorder: A change or mutation in one gene, such as sickle cell anemia and cystic fibrosis, classified as autosomal dominant, autosomal recessive, or sex-linked.
  • A dominant trait is one where one copy of a gene passed to a child causes an effect in the child : dwarfism or Huntington’s disease.
  • A recessive trait is one where a child must inherit the defective gene from both parents in order to express the trait: sickle cell and cystic fibrosis
  • A sex-linked trait is one that is passed on the sex chromosomes (the X or the Y).
• Multifactorial disorders: Caused by multiple bad genes AND the environment in combination, such as breast cancer. These genetic disorders and the environment play a role in multifactorial diseases.
• Mitochondrial disorders: These are ONLY passed from mother to child. Leber’s hereditary optic neuropathy is an example of this.
• Chromosomal disorders: Involve inheriting either not enough chromosomes or extras, such as Down’s syndrome.

Genetic Screening

• Carrier screening: Done on adult couples considering having children to determine if children could inherit diseases.
• Preimplantation Genetic Diagnosis (PGD): Used by people with known autosomal dominant or sex-linked conditions to select healthy embryos in vitro and implant them.
• Fetal Screening/Prenatal diagnosis: Amniocentesis or chorionic villus sampling are used to extract cells from the fetus for testing; both procedures carry a risk of miscarriage.
  • Amniocentesis: Involves inserting a large needle through the abdomen and into the uterus, where amniotic fluid (the fluid surrounding and protecting the baby) is removed.
  • Chorionic villus sampling: Chorionic villus cells are removed from the placenta by inserting a needle vaginally and directing that needle to the placenta.
• Newborn screening: Testing of infants shortly after birth to test for inherited diseases if the parents choose not to implement measures that complete this testing while the baby is still in utero.

DNA Amplification

• DNA amplified by PCR: Polymerase chain reaction produces multiple copies of a DNA sequence.
  • Three ingredients added: Taq polymerase, DNA primers, and DNA nucleotides.
    • PCR bead include Taq polymerase, and DNA nucleotides.
    • Primer specific genes being tested for is added to bead.
  • Denaturation: 95 degrees C to break up hydrogen bonds in double-stranded DNA.
  • Annealing: Thermal cycler cools to 55 degrees C as DNA primers bind to the section of DNA.
  • Extension: 72 degrees C and requires both Taq polymerase and DNA nucleotides; copies DNA.
• Testing for Disease Genotype (DNA) predicts phenotype (traits); testing done with gel electrophoresis.

Gel Electrophoresis

• Isolation of the DNA: Cells are taken from somewhere (blood, saliva, cheek swabbing) and the cells are lysed (blown up).
• Cell Separation: Centrifugation separates the heavy cell components from the from other waste products.
• Chelex: Forces the DNA to separate itself from the remainder of the cell waste in the tube.
• Next Step: DNA must be amplified with PCR.
• SNP Identification: Restriction enzymes are molecular scissors that recognize specific DNA sequences and cut the nucleotide strands.
• Gel Electrophoresis: DNA is added to wells in an agarose gel, charged with an electrical current, and DNA fragments with varying size are separated.
• DNA fragments are stained after the process is completed and can be read by determining the size of the DNA fragments. Results show the genotype of an individual.
• Healthy pregnancy: Maternal health is monitored avoid alcohol, smoke, and drugs chemical intake. Diet and exercise ensure the baby is healthy.
• Gene therapy: Type of disease treatment that involves replacing “bad” genes with “good ones, or flipping genetic switches that are making things go wrong.
• Gene therapy involves using vectors to deliver healthy genes to affected cells such as retroviruses, adenoviruses, adeno-associated viruses, herpes simplex viruses, liposomes, and naked DNA vectors deliver unaffected genes to people carrying a specific disease,

Gene Therapy Challenges

• Delivering DNA to target cells.
• Integrating DNA completely.
• Fixing DNA in a safe spot.
• Genetic enhancement (designer babies) raises ethical considerations.
• Gender Baby selection sperm sorting selects baby gender and preimplantation genetic diagnosis (baby without defects) allow parents to make certain selections for their babies/make selections for their babies.
• Sperm sorting separates sperm carrying an X chromosome from sperm carrying a Y chromosome using centrifugation.
• Reproductive cloning Cloning to make a copy of an individual is very different from therapeutic cloning. Therapeutic cloning Healing purposes rather than reproductive ones. that clone certain body part.
• Unit review: The focus of Unit 2 has been diagnosis and future prevention of inherited diseases.

3. 1 Detecting Cancer Facts

• Cancer: The second leading cause of death in the United States.
• Cancer: Abnormal cells in which the processes that regulate normal cell division are damaged.
• Cells follow the cycle of living, growing, dividing, and die.
• Cancer can affect any tissue or organ of the body.
• Early detection and treatment can improve a person's outcome.
• Incidence of cancer increases with age.
• Personal actions such as smoking, alcohol consumption, sun exposure, and diet can increase the risk of cancer.
• Cancer can lead to cancer elsewhere in the body.
• A family history of cancer increases our risk of cancer.
• X-rays, CT scans, and MRI scans are used to create pictures of the inside of the body to diagnose and treat many disorders.

X-Rays

• X-rays noninvasive medical test used to produce images of the inside of the body to help diagnose medical conditions.
• X-rays a form of electromagnetic radiation sent through the body, absorbed by hard tissues like bones.
• Structures containing lots of air are less dense, so will appear black or dark gray, while more dense structures appear gray to white.
• Contrast media or metal can be added metal is added to examine soft tissues.
• Images are two dimensional and has ionizing radiation increases the risk of certain cancers and health risks to the fetus.
• CT scans rotating x-ray tube, more sensitive images, can produce internal organ images.
• Images can see chest, abdomen, pelvis, spine, and skeletal structures.
• Safer to use than x-ray to with medical implant,
• Large amount of detail, contrast can case allergic reaction.

MRI

• MRI uses a large magnet to send send radio waves through the body
• Detailed images are produced with this technology of the body’s soft tissues, unlike CT scans and X-rays,
• Images produces are cross-sections, either going down the body in the transverse plane or in the sagittal plane.
• Safe technology except the body is attracted be a magnet.
• Bone scan nuclear imaging test that produces 2-D images of the body.
• Tracers create high levels of metabolic actives, hot spots are cancer cells.
• Biopsy test that involves removing a small sample of tissue from the body where cancer is suspected, cells, and cultured examined for abnormalities.
• Cancer cells: irregular numbers of nuclei, irregular numbers of chromosomes, abnormal cell membrane

Detecting Genes Involved in Cancer

• Detecting Genes Scientists compare the gene expression patterns between healthy and cancer cells through the use of DNA microarray technology.
• Every cell in the human body contains the same 20,000 or so genes
• Melanin is active in skin cells mysoin is only turned one muscle cell.
• DNA microarrays are glass, plastic, or silicon slides that have been spotted with thousands of short segments of
  DNA. These short segments of DNA are single-stranded and each contains a portion of a gene of interest to the scientist.
• Microarray process: A gene thought to be involved in a particular type of cancer is located within the human genome sequence a computer will ensure same amount of DNA
• Processing : Collect normal tissue and malignant tissue from a patients and processed to lysing the cells, separating the RNA, by, Poly-A taill

Microarray

• Microarray fluid passed over PCR, creates cDNA for cancerous and healthy tissue
• Then applied to micro array which contain complementary strands
• The DNA and cDNA will base pair and bind each otehr
• Red glow shows a gene is highly expressed (cranked way up) in cancerous cells.
• A saturated green color indicates that a gene is underexpressed (turned down or off) in cancerous tissue
• The color determine ratios and compared to determine gene expression rotations.
• Similar pattern between different individuals involves statistical analysis.
• There are things can do to reduce your chances: change your behavior, and assess your personal risk.
• Factors: behavior, biology, environment, gene DNA alter.
• Preventions simple, change lifestyle, common sense about healthy living impact, biology and genetic risk screening is key.

Skin Cancer

• Exposure to UV mutation that result cancer with protect gear sun and blocking .uv rays decrease risk.
• The longer you spend in the sun or in UV light, the more of your cells - including those of deeper skin layers - are exposed to that UV and at risk for changing.
• PROLONG EXPOSURE
• ABCD guide:
• A is asymmetry
• B for irregular border
• C is for change
• E for evolving or changing
• Cancer screenings used to test for the presence of cancer.
• Normal cells are regulated (controlled) in by the cell cycle, mutations damages in change of division cause cancer
• Three types Proto, onco, tumor

Genetic Mutations causing cancer

• Tumor: suppressors stop abnormal cell and trigger apoptosis
• Proto: normal cells to become cancerous when, are mutated
• Onco are cells are mutated of of Proto is cancer by making cell division, decreased cell differentiation, and inhibition of cell death,
• Breast cancer gene abnormalities, increase chances of getting cancer
• The test can be identified DNA sequencing and marker analysis.
• Gene version causes greater cancer chances if it runs in family can get checked DNA marker is is short sequences analyze mutated form.

Marker Analysis Process

• DNA extraction marker
• Use PCR and short chunks that has repeating pattern. Use gel electrophoresis for all alleles that a known
• If is the same well like member alleles simular of the can member.
• Analizing the DNA member
• Marker analysis
• Star marker to the first and calculate the RF well number B
• Then use the y/x plots values
• Viruses linked cancer
• HPV and EBV types link cancer

Cancer Treatments and Prevention

• Biofeedback (therapies to cope with pain)
• Chemo and radation decrease cancer growth or even destory it completely by
• Side chemo and radation effect vomiting fatigue change apatite while radiation source and side effects.
• Amputation if chemo or radation are not work and limbs replacement is prossible with new technology .
• Physical and occupation therepy recover from the change.
• Pharmacogenmics to find the most effective medication.
• Nano medicine use nano particles treat sickness.

4. 1 Manufacturing Human Proteins (Diabetes)

• Diabetes: A disease in which the body does not make insulin, resulting in sugar trapped in the blood stream.
• Previously insulin, cow pancreas have been used as a source since. Recently , use e E coli ..
• Genetic engineered is performed on small rubber like structures called plasmids. Plasmid containing E coli are then infected with the modified material.
• Shocking the plasmids is a multistep process that requires several steps:
• Restriction enzymes are used to cut specified chains.
• E coli are shocked to permeate membrane after it gets chilled .
• Heat shocking the membranes and plasmid is re inserted to copy or multiply.
• Transformation must begin with a colony of developed agar. You then grow the colony centrifuge to pellet them and rinse to extract protein .
• Binding butter proteins solution/column and chromatography must start .hydrophobic will be separate at after a solution washes it all.
• Vertical electrophoresis protein vs pure test from solution.

4. 2 Kidney Failure

• Symptoms of diabetes: frequent urination, constant thirst, rapid weight loss, etc.
• Complications diabetic retinopathy, diabetic neuropathy, fatigue, and kidney function.
• End-stage renal disease. kidney
• Diagnose blood urea nitrogen, creatine, potassium levels, blood pressure, ekg, urinalysis.
• Dialysis is a option and can be artificial filtration system. Heom dialysis (machine out side filter in) . Peritoneal(Inside membranes filtering out inside). Trasplant is a great option but need to wait.
  # 4.3 Transplants (Organ Removal Process)
• National transplant requires people's names and must follow policy to allocate, organs. All should be the same type, so rejection levels can be decreased for patients. Due to the same tissue. Best and possible best is family for kidney because test. The first test is just to have it be same.
• Testing is not a first time or subjective thing.
• Nation organ has regulations, which are:
  • NOTTA: Prohibits profit on selling body parts.
  • OPTN: Medical and test will need to be first. Has exclusions of all people's race or etc for testing or reason that is not medical needed.
• OPTN Criteria : compatibilites and near the geographics location same as receipients and or age.
• Tissue and cell types is more complex since it takes more process . Test performed: Blood-typing. H L A, Anti Body, Cross match

Transplants Test

• Blood Test : A +, B+ and etc
• Red with Red is post same
• HLA TEST is white Antigen, HLA antigens is responsible how you reconzine . H A testing can use P C code.
  You can increase HLA when they is a increase rejection or increase antibodies but its normal for it happen since HLA decrease
• AB= anti D test or what ever is used to find the serum. It take cells one set by random to find its best option. Less antibodies the more cells. Is is bad sign after it occur.
  • Crossmatching: Done to find out the likelihood of body acceptance
• Kidney removel must be Laparoscopically.
• Surgery removal is required for doners less pain will show .
• Transport must be immediate transported.
  # 4.4 The Better Body
• We discussed tissue engineering, xenotransplantation, and bionics.
  • Xenotransplantation: Transplantation of living tissues or organs from one species to another
  • Tissue engineering: Replacement of damaged organs or tissues with engineered organs or tissues created in the laboratory