1.2 | Major Pre-Columbian Civilizations.

Key Civilizations Before European Contact

Before Europeans arrived, the Americas were home to advanced civilizations with large cities, trade networks, and unique cultures. Here are some major ones:

1. Mesoamerican Civilizations (Mexico & Central America)

Aztecs (Mexico)
- Built Tenochtitlán, a massive city on a lake (modern-day Mexico City).
- Practiced chinampa farming (floating gardens).
- Strong military, expanded through warfare and tribute systems.
- Polytheistic, practiced human sacrifice for religious rituals.
Maya (Central America - Yucatán Peninsula, Guatemala, Belize, Honduras)
- Developed the first writing system in the Americas (glyphs).
- Built large city-states like Tikal and Chichen Itza.
- Expert astronomers and mathematicians (created a 365-day calendar).
- Society mysteriously declined before European arrival.

2. Andean Civilizations (South America)

Inca (Peru, Ecuador, Bolivia, Chile)
- Capital: Cuzco; famous city: Machu Picchu.
- Developed terrace farming in mountains.
- Built an extensive road system (~25,000 miles) to connect the empire.
- Used quipu (knotted strings) instead of writing for record-keeping.

3. North American Civilizations

Mississippians (Southeastern U.S.)
- Largest city: Cahokia (southwestern Illinois; present-day St. Louis, Missouri),
- home to 20,000+ people.
- Built mounds for religious, political, and social purposes.
  - Religious - Sites for temples and ceremonies
  - Political - Elevated areas for chiefs' residences and governance
  - Social - Gathering places for events and community activities
- Extensive trade networks across North America.
Iroquois Confederacy (Northeastern U.S.)
- Alliance of several tribes (Haudenosaunee – Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, Seneca, later Tuscarora).
- Developed an early democratic government that influenced the U.S. Constitution.
- Matrilineal society (women had significant political power).