Exam 4 Study Guide Overview

Chapter 31: Animal Organization and Homeostasis

• Types of Tissues:

  • Four main types: epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous tissues.

  • Recognize tissue types from images and slides (reference Figs. 31.1, 31.3, and 31.5).

  • Epithelial Tissue: Covers body surfaces and forms glands; can be classified as simple or stratified.

  • Connective Tissue: Provides support and structure; examples include adipocytes (fat storage), bone tissue (structural support), and blood (transport).

  • Muscle Tissue: Responsible for movement; includes skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscle types.

  • Nervous Tissue: Comprises neurons and neuroglia (supporting cells), transmitting signals throughout the body.

• Glandular Structures:

  • Exocrine Glands: Have ducts (e.g., salivary glands).

  • Endocrine Glands: No ducts; secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream (e.g., thyroid).

• Body Cavities:

  • Understand the major body cavities and their contents (e.g., thoracic, abdominal).

Chapter 32: Circulation and Cardiovascular Systems

• Vascular Structures:

  • Arteries: Carry blood away from the heart.

  • Veins: Bring blood back to the heart.

  • Capillaries: Site of exchange between blood and tissues.

• Blood Components:

  • Hemolymph: Fluid in invertebrates, functions similarly to blood.

  • Hemoglobin vs. Hemocyanin: Hemoglobin (iron-based) found in vertebrates; hemocyanin (copper-based) in some arthropods and mollusks.

• Blood Flow:

  • Pathway through the heart and body in fish, frogs, and humans; understand the flow diagram.

  • Functions of heart valves: tricuspid, bicuspid/mitral, pulmonary semilunar, aortic semilunar.

• Cardiovascular Health:

  • Common issues: shock, stroke, heart attack, atherosclerosis.

  • Importance of monitoring blood antigens (ABO and Rh systems).

Chapter 33: The Lymphatic and Immune Systems

• Lymphatic System:

  • Organs: lymph nodes, spleen, tonsils; role in fluid balance and immune response (reference Fig. 33.2).

  • Peyer's Patches: Aggregates of lymphoid tissue in the intestine, important for gut immunity.

• Immune Cells:

  • Types include B cells (produce antibodies), T cells (cell-mediated response), macrophages, and leukocytes.

  • Functions and interactions of these cells in immune response.

• Antibodies:

  • Proteins produced by B cells, specific to antigens, neutralize pathogens.

  • Types of immunity: innate (natural) vs. acquired; active vs. passive immunity.

• Immune Disorders:

  • Examples include allergies, autoimmune diseases, and immunodeficiency.

Chapter 34: Digestive Systems and Nutrition

• Digestive Process:

  • Peristalsis: Waves of muscle contraction that move food through the digestive tract.

• Digestive System Parts:

  • Major organs: stomach, intestine, liver, pancreas; their specific functions.

  • Unique adaptations in some animals: crop (temporary storage) and gizzard (grinding food).

• Digestive Fluids:

  • Key substances: pepsin (protein digestion), bile (fat emulsification).

  • Antimicrobial substances in the digestive tract that kill bacteria.

Chapter 35: Respiratory Systems

• Organismal Respiration:

  • Respiration needs in various organisms (flatworms, earthworms, fish).

  • Different adaptations for oxygen uptake in organisms (hydras through diffusion, fish via gills).

• Breathing Mechanism:

  • Role of diaphragm and rib cage in inhalation and exhalation.

  • Comparison of air flow in humans vs. birds.

• Respiratory Health:

  • Common diseases of the respiratory system (reference fig. 35.15).

Chapter 36: Bodily Fluid Regulation and Excretory Systems

• Excretory System:

  • Structure and function (organs involved in waste excretion).

  • Types of nitrogenous waste products.

• Osmoregulation:

  • Differences in osmoregulation for aquatic and terrestrial animals.

  • Unique adaptations: Do birds urinate and how?

• Nephron Structure:

  • Functional unit of the kidney; involved in filtration and reabsorption processes.

Chapter 37: Neurons and Nervous Systems

• Neuron Structure:

  • Components: dendrites, cell body, axon, myelin sheath, and synapse; function of each part in signal transmission.

• Brain Organization:

  • Basic functions of major human brain parts (as represented in fig. 37.8).

• Nerve Signal Transmission:

  • Mechanisms of signal propagation along axons and between neurons.

  • Concept of reflex arcs and their function in rapid responses.

• Brain Matter:

  • Distinguish between white matter (myelinated axons) and gray matter (neuron cell bodies).

• Autonomic Nervous System:

  • Sympathetic Nervous System: Involved in fight or flight responses.

  • Parasympathetic Nervous System: Responsible for rest and digest activities.

There is no need to cover hormonal aspects in this study guide yet; these will be discussed separately.