Psych Module 31 & 32

• psychs use memory models to think and communicate about memory

• information processing models involve 3 processes: encoding, storage, and retrieval

• the connectionism information processing model views memories as products of interconnected neural networks

• the 3 processing stages in the atkinson shiffrin model are: sensory, short term, long term

• more recent research has updated the model to include: working memory (to stress the active processing occuring in the second memory stage) AND automatic processing (to address the processing of information outside of conscious awareness)

• explicit (declarative) memories, our conscious memories of facts/experiences form through effortful processing (which requires conscious effort and attention)

• implict (nondeclarative) memories of skills and classically conditioned associations happen without our awareness through automatic processing

• in addition to skills and classically conditioned associations, we automatically process incidental information about space time and frequency

• sensory memory feeds some information into working memory for active processing there

• an iconic memory is a very brief (few tenths of second) sensory memory of visual stimuli, an echoic memory is a ¾ second sensory memory of auditory stimuli

• short term memory capacity is about 7 items plus or minus 2 but this information disappears from memory quickly without rehearsel

• working memory capactiy varies depending on age, intelligence level, and other factors

• effective effortful processing strategies include chunking, mnemonics, hierarchies, and distributed practice sessions

• the testing effect is the finding that consciously retrieving rather than simply rereading information enhances memory

• depth of processing affectd long term retention, in shallow processing we encode words based on their structure/appearance, retention is best when we use deep processing encoding words based on their meaning

• we also more easily remember material that is personally meaningful, the self reference effect

• our long term capactiy is essentially unlimited

• memories are not stored intact in the brain in single spots, many parts of the brain interact as we form/retrieve memories

• many brain regions send info to the frontal lobe for processing

• the cerebellum and basal ganglia are parts of the brain network dedicated to implicit memory formation

• the cerebellum is important for storing classically conditioned memories

• the basal ganglia are involved in motor movemetn and help form procedural memories for skills

• many reactions/skills learned during our first 3 years continue into our adult lives, but we cannot consciously remember learning these associations and skills (infantile amnesia)

• emotional arousal causes an outpouring of stress hormones, which lead to acitivty in the brain’s memory forming areas, significantly stressful events can trigger very clear flashbulb memories

• LTP appears to be the neural basis for learning and memory, in LTP neurons become more efficient at releasing and sensing the presence of neurotransmitters and more connections develop btwn neurons

• evidence of memory may be seen in an ability to recall info, recognize it, or relearn it more easily on a later attempt

• external cues activate associations that help us retrieve memories, this process may occur without our awareness as in priming

• returning to the same physical context or emotional state (mood congruency) in which we formed a memory can help us retrieve it

• the serial position effect accounts for our tendency to recall the best last items (can still be in working memory) and the first items (which we’ve spent more time rehearsing) in a list

Memory: the persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information

Encoding: the processing of information into the memory system for example by extracting meaning

Storage: the process of retaining encoded information over time

Retrieval: the process of getting information out of memory storage

Parallel processing: the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously, the brain’s natural mode on info processing for many functions. contrasts with the step by step (serial) processing of most computers and of conscious problem solving

Sensory memory: the immediate very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system

Short term memory: activated memeory that holds a few items briefly such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing before the information is stored or forgotten

Long term memory: the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system, includes knowledge skills and experience

Working memory: a newer understanding of short term memory that focuses on conscious active processing of incoming auditory and visual spatial information and of information retrieved from long term memory

Explicit memory: memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and declare, also called declarative memory

Effortful processing: encoding that requires attention and conscious effort

Automatic processing: unconscious encoding of incidental information such as space time and frequency and of well learned information such as word meanings

Implicit memory: retention independent of conscious recollection, also called nondeclarative memory

Iconic memory: a momentary sensory memory of visual stimulus, a photographic or picture image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second

Echoic memory: a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimulus, if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within ¾ seconds

Chunking: organizing items into familiar manegeable units, often occurs automatically

Mnemonics: memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices

Spacing effect: the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice

Testing effect: enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading information, also sometimes referred to as a retrieval practice effect or test enhanced learning

Shallow processing: encoding on a basic level based on the structure or appearance of words

Deep processing: encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words, tends to yield the best retention

Hippocampus: a neural center located in the limbic system, helps process explicit memories for storage

Flashbulb memory: a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event

Long term potentiation (LTP): an increase in a cell’s firing potential after brief rapid stimulation, believed to be a neural basis for learning/memory

Recall: a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill in the blank test

Recognition: a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned as on a multiple choice test

Relearning: a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material again

Priming: the activation often unconsciously of particular associations in memory

Mood congruent memory: the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current good/bad mood

Serial position effect: our tendency to recall best the last (recency effect) and first items ( a primacy effect) in a list