Medieval Europe Notes
Support for the Church was so strong that in 1096, at the request of the Pope, tens of thousands of people from across Europe volunteered to fight a series of religious wars known as the Crusades.
The Crusades were fought between Christians and Muslims to gain control of key religious sites in a region known as the Holy Land. These wars went on to influence many aspects of modern European societies.
In Europe’s early medieval period, Christian missionaries travelled great distances to spread the religion to people including Germanic tribes (such as the Vandals, the Franks and the Visigoths) as well as the Vikings. A branch of Christianity known as Catholicism was the only recognised religion. The Catholic Church, led by the Pope in Rome, played a central role in the lives of all people — from the richest to the poorest. It was not uncommon for people to pray up to five times a day, and everyone attended mass on Sunday to praise God. The Roman Catholic Church came to dominate most societies in Europe. Its teachings strongly influenced how people lived their lives.
Churches, cathedrals, monasteries and nunneries were built across different regions of Europe and played an important role in the community. They provided education, health care and spiritual guidance and support. Since most people could not read, their understanding of the world was shaped by the teachings of the Church.
When the Roman Empire collapsed in the western part of Europe in 476 CE, ordinary people living
there no longer had the structure of Roman law or the protection of Rome’s army against attacks from barbarians. Over a short period of time, social order broke down and attacks on people’s homes and property were common. The religion of Christianity offered people hope during this difficult time.
Christianity is a religion based on the teachings of Jesus Christ as recorded in the Old and New Testaments of the Bible. Living according to the word of God ensured that a person’s soul would go to heaven, whereas a life of sin would lead to an eternity in hell.
Feudalism began in Europe around 900 CE and spread across Europe over the next 150 years.
Under feudalism, relationships in the hierarchy were between lords (people higher up in the hierarchy) and vassals (people lower down in the hierarchy).
The king was the most important member of society. The king was lord to all people. He owned most of the land in his kingdom and was believed to rule with the authority of God. The Church also owned some land.
In order to run his kingdom effectively, the king granted sections of land (known as fiefs) to
rtant people in society — such
as nobles and church officials. Nobles were vassals to the king. In return for their fief, each noble
provided the king
with their loyalty and military
support. For example, if the king was attacked or
war broke ou
Each noble then granted smaller sections of their fiefs to a number of knights below them. In return for this land, the knights offered their protection. Each knight then allowed peasants (also known as serfs) to live on their land in return for payment or rent. Peasants would often pay their rent by working and farming the land. They would then pay in money or in crops. Peasants were at the very bottom of the hierarchy. They had very
2 shows how the system of
OBLIGATIONS PRIVILEGES Nobles King e vassals to e lord to all king e grants e provide land to money and vassals knights to lord Nobles , Nobles and church e lord to Knights officials knights e vassals to - e grant land church to vassals officials e provide ; \ protection Dye Knights and military Knights e lord to ue to peasants/ ord serfs e grant land to vassals Peasants e vassals h to all RY s O (DOCE WENK Peasants / serfs and food to lord
Source 2 Feudalism was based on a set of group within society.
privileges and obligations for each
There were many different causes of these conflicts, including:
e a desire for power and control (either by an individual leader or entire group)
e a desire for land or territories occupied by rival groups
e a desire or need for resources owned or controlled by rival groups (such as water, farming land, gold, weapons and castles)
e a desire to convert (or kill) people with different religious or spiritual beliefs.
there were also many effects, including:
e the death of large numbers of soldiers and ordinary people - often making up large sections of a group or society’s population
e the destruction or erosion of entire cultures and civilisations
e large changes in the way societies were structured or functioned
e changes to the rulers (such as the king and royal family) or governments or groups or societies
e the introduction of new ideas, cultures and ways of doing things
e the spread of new ideas, technologies, belief systems and goods
e the spread of disease
e the development of new weapons, fighting techniques and defensive structures (such as castles and moats)
e destruction of the environment.
The Battle of Hastings was fought in 1066 in England after the death of the English king, Edward the Confessor. Edward died without an heir to the throne, so a number of men believed they had
the right to rule England. One contender, Harold Godwinson (the powerful Earl of Wessex), had himself crowned king almost immediately, but Edward’s cousin William (Duke of Normandy - an area settled by Vikings in France) believed that he was the rightful king. Later that year, the Saxon army of Harold Godwinson and the Norman (Viking) army of William met in battle near the town of Hastings. After winning this battle, William was crowned king of England and became known as William the Conqueror. He introduced a number of Norman beliefs and traditions to England —
the most important of these was the system of feudalism. Feudalism changed the way society and laws in England and other societies across Europe were organised.
The main aim of the First Crusade was to gain control over important religious sites in and around the city of Jerusalem.
Before the First Crusade, European merchants and travellers to the Holy Land (including Jerusalem) were on good terms with the local Arabs. However, things changed when the Seljuk Turks, a militant Muslim group, took control of the city. They closed Jerusalem to Jewish and Christian pilgrims. This caused the Pope to call for Christian volunteers to form an army and recapture the city.
The resulting conflicts caused a tremendous loss of life on both sides and sowed the seeds of
religious tensions that continue
to the present day in that part of the world. It also saw Christian crusaders return to Europe with many new goods and ideas from the Holy Land that went on to change European society in many positive ways.
800-Charlemagne, king of the Franks is crowned Holy Roman Emperor
813-Charlemagne dies
1042-Edward the Confessor becomes King of England
1050- The Seljuk Turks- a militarist Islamic group take control of Jerusalem
1066- The king of England, Edward the Confessor dies. Harold Godwinson declares himself kin but William of Normandy, Edward's cousin defeats Harold at the battle of Hastings and is crowned King of England.
1096- The First Crusade begins; marking the start of 8 wars to be fought between the Christians and Muslims over the next few years
1187- Muslim Forces capture Jerusalem, a motive for the third Crusade
1215- The Magna Carta is signed, the first ever official document outlining the rights of English people is made and King John is forced to give it the royal seal
1315- The Great Famine begins lasting two years and killing millions of people
1347- A dedly virus breaks out in Sicily kiling 50 to 90 percent of those it touches, called the Black Death
1381- The Peasant's Revolt occurs in England
1450- Johnaness Gutenberg invents the printing press in Germany
Tribal people began invading Western Europe from about the 4th century CE. These groups included the Huns, Visigoths, Vandals, Angles, Saxons and Vikings. The ancient Romans called them all barbarians. Some of these tribal people were warlike and aggressive.
A free peasant might move between manors or towns, working for wages.
A serf would spend their entire life on one lord’s estate, working land they didn’t own and needing permission for everything (even marriage or travel).
Under feudalism in Europe, land not The private strips of land, given to serfs to work for themselves, belonging to the ruler or the Church were usually scattered throughout the manor. The serfs’ first was mostly divided into manor lands priority was to work the lord’s land. They worked on their strips in
what time remained. Each manor was owned by a noble or A,
knight who was given it by his lord as Hayward — a person who > Steward — the aaa a fief. Manor lands were made up of the guarded crop fields to ensure - manor managor SEa d (the lord’s land d ts & livestock did not damage them ty Whioialso looked am emesne (the lord’s land), and peasants g r “Song Sa BE <a and serfs farmed the land to meet their
own needs.
Under this arrangement, the lord of a manor provided serfs on his estate with a place to live and the means to survive. In return, they provided him with their labour. They also provided taxes (a portion of what they produced on the land they farmed). Most serfs were not free to leave the manor lands and had to have the lord’s permission to do many everyday tasks.
lands were divided into three fields. year a different field was not farmed to allow the soil to recover its nutrients. While crops were
_ being harvested in a second field, a third was being planted. Different crops were grown at different times so that the soil was not drained of any particular nutrient.
, Bailiff - a peasant | farmer who owned a small tract of land. He collected and organised taxes, looked after manor repairs and helped the steward.
* Village church and grounds — where religious services, marriages, funerals, school tuition and local markets were held.
supplies fish. Its waters were also used for cooking, and washing and waste disposal.
After a harvest, stock were allowed game (e.g. deer and boars). Gamekeepers patrolled the vs » tograzeona field’s stubble; their _ forests to ensure that manor peasants did not hunt there.
Fortified manor house hand. Threshers would then (or castle) — where the beat harvested crops to free, lord and his family lived. the grains (such as wheat). a
Serfs could use the mill to grind their grain for a fee (paid in produce).
| Pasture land (called
a common) for stock. Serfs could graze their own stock there for
i short periods.
Village well - water was
transported back to village huts in barrels or animal skins.
A common punishment was to be locked in the stocks
objects, such as rotten food
Village — where the serfs lived; typically a the person being punished.
Women cooked, cared for their family and animals, spun, wove cloth and i worked on the land (e.g. by x sowing seeds).
ollected from swamps and riverbanks.
All of the land ruled by the king was believed to belong only to him. In most medieval European societies, the king kept about 25 per cent of all land for himself and granted permission to nobles and Church officials to use the rest.
One of the Pope’s greatest powers was the ability to excommunicate (expel from the Church forever) members of the faith - a punishment that terrified medieval Christians. An excommunicated person could no longer go to church, and his or her soul was
doomed to live in hell.
By the 11th century in Europe, there were great differences between the clothing worn by the rich and the poor. In fact, laws were passed to enforce this difference. Only people of royal blood were allowed to wear gold and silver materials and purple silk, and only noblewomen could wear veils and have dresses made from satin and velvet.
The clothes of the wealthy were almost always custom-made by tailors. Women typically wore long, trailing garments with elaborate sleeves and ornate headgear. Wealthy men commonly wore tunics, stockings, decorated cloaks and fancy hats. The clothes of the poor were, by contrast, drab and dull in colour. They were crudely cut, and made from coarse cloth woven by peasant women from handspun wool or linen.
The rich ate the meat of both domestic animals (such as cows, pigs
and sheep) and game animals (such as deer, wild boars and pheasants). They also ate fish, fruit, soft cheese, eggs, coloured jellies, vegetables, sauces and soups, salads, white bread, pies and tarts, and ornate sweet dishes called subtleties. Food was washed down with ale, wine or mead (a brew made from honey and water).
In between the many courses, diners were entertained by acrobats, minstrels, troubadours, storytellers, jugglers and jesters.
Many pastimes in medieval Europe were the privilege of the wealthy. These included lavish banquets and, for the men, activities such as hunting, falconry and playing chess. Wealthy women might embroider, stitch tapestries or listen to musical performances.
Hunts were typically conducted in the woods and forests surrounding feudal manors. Sometimes, women, riding side-saddle, would be part of the hunting party. Access to these areas was forbidden to the poor; instead, they hunted for rabbits and birds in the fields.
The poor did not have many opportunities for as eagles, falcons and hawks to catch small animals entertainment, but during special feasts, such as at such as pigeons and hares (see Source 4). The type of harvest time, there might be dancing, dice throwing, hunting bird used indicated a person’s status - eagles, ball games and wrestling, for example. Many of for example, were only owned by kings. Appearingi n the games played by medieval children, such as public with a bird of prey on a leather-strapped wrist hopscotch and hide-and-seek, are still played today
The wealthiest and most powerful families in medieval Europe lived in castles which were scattered across the countryside. Within the castle walls lived not just the family but a whole community able to serve all the needs of the family.
Drawbridge — this could be raised for security reasons.
Access bridge — anyone wanting to enter the castle would be visible to the guards for quite some time before
they reached the gate.
=
portcullis (gate)
Men worked pulleys to
H
\ \ lower the drawbridge
and raise the portcullis.
The castle gate and gatehouse were always guarded.
Garrison — where soldiers lived; it would be packed with soldiers in time of war
Garderobe- toilet with seat opening directly onto a moat below
The great hall, with
its often straw-
~ lined floor, served "| many purposes.
It was a banquet
hall, a court, a
place to receive
visitors, and a
4-2, meeting place. In the early days of
castles, it was also
=) a bedroom for the
#22 lord and his family.
Workshops — where craftspeople, such as blacksmiths, furniture makers, cobblers, armour makers and potters, made their goods for the castle occupants and were trained.
dungeons ( undergroundprison cells)
The basement room of a castle tower would = => be used as a cool room to store food (e.g. salted meat and bags of grain), wine and equipment under the surface of the moat.
vegetable
big iron pots) hung over open fires and spits;
— fe Tit 4. sometimes a cauldron 4) might contain a number of different dishes, each packed separately. The scullery, where dishes and pots were washed, was often outside
Charles I (742-814), more commonly known as Charlemagne (meaning Charles the Great), was one of the most important kings in medieval Europe. Charlemagne and his brother Carloman both took the throne of the Frankish kingdom when their father, Pepin the Short, died in 768. After Carloman’s death in 771, Charlemagne ruled in his own right.
Charlemagne had earlier given many of these men grants of land, a common practice among
the Franks. This was done partly so they could support themselves, and partly so they could equip themselves to help Charlemagne in battle. It also encouraged their ongoing loyalty and support.
Charlemagne did not just lead in battle. He was also a leading thinker, introducing many political and social reforms. For example, he set up a common system of currency, bringing back coins as the means of buying and selling goods and services as the Romans had done hundreds of years earlier. He also encouraged the arts and education, setting up a number of schools for both peasants and nobles alike. Many of the cultural and artistic traditions of the Greek and Roman empires were brought back to life during Charlemagne’s rule. As a result, the period of his rule is often described as the Carolingian Renaissance.
His leadership encouraged many new developments in literature, architecture and the arts.
Charlemagne had always had a close relationship with the Catholic Church. In 799, he came to the aid of Pope Leo II. The Pope, accused of adultery, had fled Rome. His accusers had threatened to ouge out his eyes and cut out his tongue. Charlemagne escorted the Pope back to Rome and forced his reinstatement.
Pope Leo III was understandably grateful to Charlemagne. On Christmas Day in 800, the Pope crowned Charlemagne as Emperor of the Romans. This endorsement from the Pope not only reinforced Charlemagne’s position as the most powerful king, but also ensured that the Catholic Church remained a strong force in Europe (as the ancient Roman Empire had been). Kings that followed Charlemagne were referred to as Holy Roman Emperors.
In late 813, Charlemagne crowned his son Louis the Pious co-emperor. Shortly after, on 28 January 814, Charlemagne died. He had ruled for 47 years. As Christianity spread across Western Europe, people of all social classes started to set out on journeys to places of religious importance (such as shrines and burial sites). These journeys, known as pilgrimages, were designed to prove Christians’ loyal devotion to God. Each region of Europe had its own sites popular with pilgrims; however, the most sacred pilgrimage site for all Christians was the Holy City of Jerusalem. The Holy Land had been held by Muslim Arabs since 637 CE, but Christian pilgrims had been allowed
to travel there freely. This changed in 1050, when a group known as the Seljuk Turks, who had recently converted to Islam, took control of Jerusalem They
began harassing pilgrims and refusing them entry. These events led to the start of a series of religious wars known as the Crusades.
The Crusades were a series of THE ROUTES OF THE FIRST CRUSADE religious wars between Christians and Muslims between 1096 and 1270 to gain control over key religious sites in and around the city of Jerusalem — an important spiritual and religious location for believers of both Christianity and Islam.
Historians argue about the total number of wars that were fought, but most agree that eight major crusades took place (see Source 4).
Date | Crusade = by First Crusade f 1096-1099 First Crusade ae ENS — iN elas Second Pilsad= Source 6 Source: Oxford University Press 1188-1192 Third Crusade 1202-1204 Fourth C d Da The start of the Crusades 1217-1222 Fifth Crusade i , k Following the takeover of Jerusalem by the Seljuk Turks in 1050, ARER aa Christian pilgrims and traders no longer felt safe in the region. 1248-1254 Seventh Crusade
i , k Following the takeover of Jerusalem by the Seljuk Turks in 1050, ARER aa Christian pilgrims and traders no longer felt safe in the region. 1248-1254 Seventh Crusade Many believed that this new Islamic regime would also move to 1270 Eighth Crusade invade Constantinople, capital of the Byzantine Empire (formerly
the Eastern Roman Empire), which was under Christian rule.
This growing threat caused the Byzantine emperor to ask for support from Pope Urban II in 1096. In response, the Pope rallied Christians all over Europe to fight for control of Jerusalem and to help defend other Christians in the Middle East against the Turkish invaders. This was the start of the First Crusade.
People from all walks of life — from kings to peasants — joined the Crusades. Young people were particularly caught up in the desire to fight in the name of Christianity. Many young peasants who took part in the Crusades were encouraged by their local parish priests to join the fight. The priests believed that young people, free from ‘sin’, would make more successful Crusaders than older people.
Although most people joined the Crusades to return control of the Holy Land to Christians, many people also went for other reasons. During this deeply religious time, most Christians believed pa that taking part would be a sure way of gaining entry into heaven Soürċe 5 An artists ad of a battle during When they died. Some were also hoping to find wealth and fame; the First Crusade, painted in 1490 others were looking for adventure.
Although there were eight major Crusades, only the first was successful in bringing Jerusalem under Christian control. All remaining Crusades were either designed to protect the gains made during the First Crusade or motivated by a desire for wealth and fame. By the time of the Eighth Crusade in 1270, the Holy Land had not been regained by the Christians and many Crusaders had never returned home at all. Some were killed in battle for the Holy Land, while others died of disease or injuries. Others were sold as slaves, never to see their homes and families again.
The Crusades did, however, have enormous effects on Europe and its people. Crusaders who returned home brought new wealth, new ideas, new customs and new products (such as foods, spices, perfumes, pearls and precious stones). The power and wealth of the Church increased greatly. Trade with the East also increased. Goods from the East poured into Europe through trading ports in Italy. With the growth in trade came the desire to explore and discover unknown lands. This, in turn, brought new ideas, greater knowledge and more inventions.
People’s lives improved. New trade and opportunities often meant Crusader
and access to education and work. The Crusades were
also responsible for weakening the system of feudalism that had dominated Europe for centuries. Many lords
had mortgaged or sold their estates before heading Remember and understand off on Crusades and many more never returned at
all. All of these changes led to a move from a landbased economy to a money-based economy. All of this contributed to increased commerce in towns — causing them to grow into cities.
Written between the 9th and 12th centuries, the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle is a collection of seven volumes written by Anglo-Saxon monks in England. The Chronicle is written in Old English (the language of the AngloSaxons). It recounts events and tells the story of England. A few brief descriptions of the Battle of Hastings appear
in the Chronicle, but in some cases the entries were made several years after the battle took place.
One of the best primary sources is a 70-metre embroidered cloth known as the Bayeux Tapestry. It is a valuable document for the study of medieval weapons, warfare, architecture and clothing. It tells a story that begins around 1066 death of King Harold at the Battle of Hastings. The exact origin of the tapestry is not Known. One story claims that Matilda, William the Conqueror’s wife, sewed the tapestry. Other accounts claim it was probably commissioned
in the 1070s by Bishop Odo of Bayeux, half-brother of William the Conqueror.64 and ends in October 1066, with the
In times of peace, castles were home to important rulers or wealthy feudal lords and their families, servants and vassals. At these times, only a small group of soldiers was needed to guard the castle. In times of war, however, castles became hives of military activity as the ruler or lord called on his supporters to defend the castle by supplying him with foot soldiers, armour, weapons and often horses.
In medieval Europe, knights were obliged to fight for their lord in times of war as well as recruit others to fight for him. Some recruits were professional soldiers, men of the upper social class. They might be the younger sons of noble families, wanting to improve their standing through military service. Such soldiers were often called men-at-arms. Other fighting recruits were commoners or peasants. These men usually came straight from the fields or towns to fight. They often had no formal training and fought as foot soldiers because they could not afford horses. Their weapons and armour were much simpler than those of knights and men-at-arm
To stay fit and trained for war, knights fought jousts. Often these were public spectacles. Heavily armoured knights charged each other on horseback holding wooden lances ahead of them. Sometimes a long wooden fence, called a tilt, separated the charging horses. The idea was to knock an opponent off
his horse. Larger contests between hundreds of knights on horseback and soldiers on foot were also held during the medieval period. These events, known as tournaments, were mock battles similar in principle to military training exercises today. By the 13th century, tournaments had become colourful spectacles (like carnivals) that created great excitement among medieval communities.
Motte-and-bailey castles
Early fortresses were called motte-and-bailey castles. The motte was a raised area (such as a hill) on which a wooden fortress was built. Below it was an open area called the bailey, where barns, workshops and stables were located. Both the bailey and motte were encircled by a gated timber palisade (fence-like barrier, made of logs), a ditch (sometimes filled with water) and an earth bank.
Stone castles with keeps
By the late 10th century, stone structures (called keeps) were starting to replace the wooden fortress in the motte-and-bailey design. These keeps, usually rectangular and up to four storeys high, were fitted out to withstand a siege. Thick stone walls replaced the palisade and a wide moat replaced the ditch. Access to the castle was via a drawbridge.
Concentric castles
Two hundred years later, the concentric castle emerged. It was based on designs Crusaders had seen in the Holy Land. This stone and/or brick castle had two outer walls (with battlements) to provide an extra barrier against attack. The outermost wall was often curved. The wall closest to the centre was the highest. There was a greatly reinforced gatehouse, but no keep.
For more information on the key concept of continuity and change, refer to page 185 of ‘The history toolkit’.
A battering ram (a large tree trunk, / sharpened to a point) was wheeled in, its operators protected by an overhead wooden shelter covered in wet animal skins. It was used to repeatedly ram a gate or section of wall
Crossbows fired heavy = Loopholes (also known as arro bolts of metal that had slits) enabled archers inside the more force than arrows. 
castle to fire on their attackers but prevented all but the most a accurate of arrows getting ie =“) through from the outside.
A moat filled with water prevented attackers from gaining easy access to castle walls
Mantleets were moveable screens used by archers for cover
Hoardings were timber structures jutting out «.. from the battlements. These protected castle = archers. Missiles could be dropped through
holes in the wooden floors of hoardings.
A ballista was like a king
sized crossbow that fired ~~ arrow-like bolts of metal
A belfry, with a shelter like that burning pieces of wood. used for the battering ram, let attackers run up internal ladders ~~
a drawbridge, allowing them [MERE =a to mount the top of the wall.
A mangonel was a giant slingshot, flinging rocks or burning pieces of wood
However, when the chances of victory from a direct attack were low, armies would instead lay siege to the castle. Siege tactics included surrounding the castle in order to cut off its food supply, poisoning its water supply and digging under sections of its outer walls to gain entry. Rarely was a siege won quickly or easily.
Skilled longbow archers could fire arrows great distances every five seconds.
A murder hole allowed rocks 1 and missiles to be dropped onto
=! enemies as they entered the castle 4 gatehouse.
External walls were thick to withstand
the impact of
missiles and direct
~ hits by siege engines wheeled in close to the walls
-A portcullis was a reinforcfed gate usually made out of iron, operated by ropes and pulleys
-A merlon (closed section of the crenellation) provided protection from enemy arrows
Until about the 12th century, armour was made of chain mail (small hoops of iron linked together), which was fashioned into a knee-length tunic. From about 1300 onwards, however, metal plate armour became more common (see Source 7).
When using a shield, the fighter had only one hand for his sword, so early swords were lighter and made for one-handed use. As armour changed, and shields became less common, the design of swords also changed — they became larger and heavier for two-handed use. The aim of these weapons was not so much to cut as to bash. Two free hands meant that other weapons such as the mace (an iron club), morning star (a spiked club like a mace), flail (a metal ball, often spiked, attached to a chain and handle) and battleaxe could be more easily used (see Source 8).
The bow and arrow was also a popular weapon during the medieval period. Archers were an important force used in medieval battles because G their arrows were easily able to pierce through armour. There were two main types of bow - the longbow and the crossbow. The longbow was a bow drawn by hand which released an arrow. A skilled archer could shoot arrows very quickly, releasing arrows every few seconds that would travel over long distances. The crossbow was a bow fixed across a wooden stock with a groove for the arrow. The crossbow required less skill to use as it had a mechanism for drawing and releasing the arrow.
Gunpowder reach Europe from China during the 13th or 14th century where it was developed 400 to 500 yeats earlier. Gunpowder was another factor helping to end Europe's feudal system through changing the ways war was fought. It was first used effectively during the Hundred Years War between France and England. By thw 15th century, different forms of cannons were becoming common.
1330s- Widespead famine and plague breaks out in north-eastern China
1346-The plague reaches the city of Kaffa on the Black Sea and Genoan merchants return to Sicily, spreading the disease
1347- Genoan Merchants spread the plague to Constaniople, Cyrpus and then Modern day Italy reahcing Venice and Alexandria in Egypt
1349- The widepsread persecution of Jews begin with thousands burned to death and it reachs Aswan in Egypt
1348-The plague reaches french cities of Marseilles and Paris then moving to England
1353- 35 million deaths recorderd in China from the plague
1381- Peasant's Revolt begins in England
Port cities along the coast of North Africa, such as Tunis and Tripoli, traded extensively with European societies, particularly those on the Italian Peninsula. There were also busy trade routes between Alexandria in Egypt and Constantinople, as well as other ports around the Black Sea. When the plague broke out, all of these trade routes and centres became gateways for the Black Death pandemic.
In addition to this, a series of civil wars and natural disasters across
Asia led to crop failures in the early 1330s. This in turn caused widespread famine across the region. Weakened and malnourished, many people were no match for the plague outbreak that followed.
From the 10th century onwards, the system of feudalism that had organised society and provided protection and stability across the continent began to weaken. There were a number of reasons for this, but most historians agree that the changes brought about by a series of Holy Wars (known as the Crusades) had a lot to do with this. New ideas, products and wealth brought back to Europe from these wars led to a time of great economic success between the 10th and 12th centuries. Trade with societies across Asia and Africa increased and towns and cities grew rapidly. This prosperity led to a huge increase in
the birth rate. As more and more people moved to the cities, conditions became difficult. Many cities became extremely overcrowded and living conditions were unhygienic. As a result, the diet, housing and general hygiene of the average city dweller was very poor.
Despite the population explosion across Europe, farming methods had remained inefficient and farmers struggled to grow enough food to feed the population. In addition to this, from around 1250 onwards the weather also became unusually cold and wet, causing a series of crop failures. All of these factors led to a number of famines across Europe and many died from starvation. Just like those living in Asia and Africa, the people of Europe were not prepared for what they were to face with the first outbreak of the Black Death.
The European sailors of the late 1400s and beyond pushed further and further into unknown waters. Many sailors died at sea looking for new lands and trading partners, but eventually new lands in the East and elsewhere were reached by sea. This opened the door for the exchange of many new products that significantly changed societies.
Not only were these new sea routes faster than land travel they also made it possible to transport greater volumes of cargo. There were many risks, including being shipwrecked on rocks, facing wild storms at sea and being attacked by pirates. However, as ship design improved and navigational skills strengthened, some risks were reduced.
By the mid 1200s, this network of dirt tracks — stretching from China in
and to claim lands in the New World (the Americas). They were most likely motivated by a combination of curiosity and a desire to impose their culture on others they thought of as primitive. Most of all, they had a desire for wealth.
The European sailors of the late 1400s and beyond pushed further and further into unknown waters. Many sailors died at sea looking for new lands and trading partners, but eventually new lands in the East and elsewhere were reached by sea. This opened the door for the exchange of many new products that significantly changed societies.
Not only were these new sea routes faster than land travel they also made it possible to transport greater volumes of cargo. There were many risks, including being shipwrecked on rocks, facing wild storms at sea and being attacked by pirates. However, as ship design improved and navigational skills strengthened, some risks were reduced.
KEY MEDIEVAL TRADE ROUTES AND GOODS TRADED
the east, westwards to the Mediterranean Sea — was controlled by the Mongol Empire. Mongol protection meant safer passage and more reliable delivery of goods.
But this reliance on the Silk Road for trade would not last. New ways to reach markets faster and more cheaply would be sought. This would eventually change the balance of power between the East and West and weaken the authority of the Mongols.
For centuries, this system was successful because these peasants needed the protection of these nobles and their knights against attacks from barbarians; however, from about 900 CE on, these attacks began to ease. This meant that common people no longer needed the protection from their lords and the system of feudalism began to weaken. Slowly, people began moving to, and living in, towns.
By 1200, there were about 600 cities in Europe, three times as many as there had been 50 years earlier. Because of this rapid growth, conditions in these towns and cities were often cramped and unhygienic.
Life expectancy during the 11th and 12th centuries was very low compared to today. Infant mortality (death) rates were very high, and if an infant survived, on average they could only expect to live to be about 35 years old if they were male, and about 31 years if they were female. Many women died during childbirth, whereas many more males died as children before the age of 10. Life expectancy in medieval Europe became worse from about 1300 (even before the Black Death) as a result of famine and the dirty, overcrowded living conditions in cities.
The Black Death was a plague pandemic that broke out in parts of Asia, Africa and Europe between the early 1330s and 1350s.
A pandemic is an infectious disease that spreads through human populations across a large region, or even worldwide, in a short period of time. This particular pandemic did not become known as the Black Death until many years later. It was given this name because of the black lumps, or buboes, that appeared on the victim’s skin.
There had been outbreaks of the plague in previous centuries, but the outbreak that occurred in the 14th century was far more deadly than previous ones. By the time it ran its course, it is estimated that more than a third of the population in Europe had died from it.
The Black Death is now believed to have been a combination of three types of plague - bubonic plague, pneumonic plague and septicemic plague. Bubonic plague is transmitted by infected fleas carried by rats. Rats were very common in the dirty, crowded conditions of medieval Europe. When the rat carrying the flea died from the plague, the flea would jump onto a person to feed from their blood. The person bitten by the flea would then be infected. Bubonic plague was the most common form of plague.
Pneumonic plague was the second most common form of plague. It attacked a person’s respiratory system and was spread through the air by a victim’s cough. It was far more contagious and deadly than the bubonic plague.
Septicemic plague was the rarest and deadliest form of the Black Death. It was also spread by infected fleas, but moves directly into the bloodstream and becomes life threatening even before buboes have had time to form on the skin. Septicemic plague killed almost 100 per cent
of victims.
Medieval societies were significantly changed by the Black Death. Town populations were devastated, trade virtually stopped and many manor lands and businesses were ruined. Family and social relationships were also ruined, for both the rich and the poor.
For most sufferers, the first sign of the Black Death was large bulges or lumps that appeared on the skin, usually in the groin, in the armpits or on the neck. These lumps were known as buboes, and initially appeared as a red colour, before turning purple, and then finally black. These buboes would spread all over the body. The victim would also get a fever and headaches. Over the next few days, the victim would lose motor control, so that they could not speak or walk properly. They would suffer much pain and vomiting, and become delirious.
The average time of death from the first symptom was between three and seven days. It is believed that between 50 and 75 per cent of those who caught the disease died
Most scientists and historians believe that an especially lethal strain of the plague broke out in China in the early 1330s, following a devastating famine. This area was then known as the Yuan Empire (covering most of present-day China and Mongolia), which had been under Mongol rule since 1279. Some think that the disease was first carried westwards by Mongols travelling along the Silk Road.
In 1346, the pandemic eventually reached a trading city on the Black Sea called Kaffa that was controlled by Genoan (Italian) merchants (see
At that time, Muslim Turks (called Tatars) were attacking Kaffa. The attacking forces of Tartars were infected with the plague. A 14th-century Italian writer, Gabriele de’ Mussi, described how the Tatars ‘ordered dead corpses [of their men] to be placed in catapults and lobbed [thrown] into the city in the hope that the intolerable stench would kill everyone inside. What seemed like mountains of dead were thrown’. The Tatar attack began to break down as the disease spread rapidly among their troops, killing all but a few. The Genoan merchants in Kaffa took the opportunity to flee to their boats.
The Genoans, however, were now also carrying the disease. On the way home, they infected those they came in contact with, including merchants in Constantinople (who, in turn, carried the plague further east). When the ships reached their home port back in Italy, crowds flocked to greet them. These survivors unknowingly introduced the disease to their homeland via their own infection and the rats on board (who jumped to land).
By the end of 1347, most plague had already reached Gaza. From Mediterranean islands were infected. Many Mediterranean there it spread to Palestine and Syria. seaports were also infected. By 1348, the Black Death was in Less than a year later, it had killed 50000 Marseilles and, then, other cities in the south of France. From people in Damascus — roughly half the there, it moved into Spain and further into Italy. population. Eventually, the whole of the Later in 1348 the plague was carried across to England by Islamic world was affected, especially sea. In 1349, the plague spread across the rest of the British Isles those living in towns or cities.
and then across the North Sea into Norway. It also continued its
spread across mainland Europe, reaching Germany. By 1350 the
plague had further spread into eastern Europe, Russia and the rest
of Scandinavia. By 1352 the plague was widespread across Europe.
occurred?
2 Describe the impact of the Black Death on Egypt during 1348 and 1349.
Europe was not the only area devastated by the Black Death. By 1347, it reached Alexandria in north Africa, carried by infected travellers on ships. An Arab writer described the arrival there
of a slave ship that had set out to sea from Constantinople with over 330 people on board. By the time it arrived in Alexandria,
there were only three survivors. Apply and analyse By early 1348, up to 1000 people were dying per day in 3 Write a paragraph outlining the role Alexandria. In fact, Alexandria’s population did not return to that trade and trade routes played in what it was before the plague until hundreds of years later. the rapid spread of the Black Death. In other villages of the Nile delta, the death rate was so high 4 Why do you think it is that nomadic that towns were abandoned, fishing almost stopped and law Arabs were able to escape the Black courts were closed. In the town of Bilbeis, for example, bodies Death?
were reported to be piled up in mosques and shops. Roads were
littered with rotting corpses, which were eaten by dogs and rats. The southward spread of the plague from Alexandria saw it 5 Create a timeline that lists key events in
travel up the Nile Valley (again, mostly through infected boat the spread of the pandemic from east
passengers). About 200000 people died in Cairo alone — 37 per to west. Include key dates for Asia, the
cent of the city’s population. By February 1349, the Black Death Micele Essi, Aica ene Ke ces
had reached Aswan, 1000 kilometres south of Cairo.
Massacres of Jews began in the spring and summer of 1348, starting in France. Persecution grew more intense after a Jewish doctor in Switzerland confessed to poisoning the drinking water, thus causing the Black Death. However, he was tortured to obtain his ‘confession’. That month all Jews in the town of Basel (in today’s Switzerland) were rounded up and burned alive.
Jewish persecution began in Germany in November 1348 and continued for the next nine months. Some Jews managed to escape to Poland where they were offered protection by King Casimir III. Many then moved on to Russia where large Jewish communities were established.
Short term effects of the Black Death
The failure of medieval medicine to cure or prevent the spread of the Black Death led to changes in medical practices immediately following the plague. Frustrated with diagnoses and treatments that revolved around astrology and superstition, doctors and scholars began focusing more on clinical medicine and seeking Apply and analyse to increase their knowledge of the physical world. This approach led to an increase in autopsies and dissections of human corpses in a desire to learn more about anatomy. This in turn led to a greater understanding of the workings of the human body and new medical texts and treatments. Hospitals developed into
that After the plague had passed, some towns and villages slowly might have been suitable for flagellants
began to set up local health boards to develop and enforce to call out as they walked around
sanitation procedures. These remained very simple but included whipping themselves.
such moves as regulations to restrict the dumping of waste and the employment of street sweepers.
The most recent estimates suggest the following approximate number of deaths as a result of the Black Death:
33 to 40 per cent of the population of Europe,
with higher rates of death in rural areas
35 million people in China
one-third of populations in the Middle East e 40 per cent of Egypt’s population.
Many monks, nuns and priests died as a result of the Black Death. Some others in the general population saw this as proof that the lifestyles of these religious people had displeased God. A few religious centres, such as monasteries, were accused of improper conduct and greed, rather than being places devoted to God. Some priests
People were dying so quickly, and in such large numbers, that there was no time for proper burials or religious ceremonies. In fact, some Christian priests began refusing to bury victims for fear of contracting the disease. Mass burials became common, with
corpses shovelled into large pits and covered with earth.
Rubbish and raw sewage in the streets of medieval towns was a common sight, even before the plague, but once the plague struck, this filthy situation became even worse. Abandoned houses were left dirty and untended, and muck in the streets piled up. There were few people to tend to the disrepair, even if they had wanted to. Tradesmen and craftsmen died along with cleaners, magistrates and officials
Long-term impacts of the
Black Death
The Peasants’ Revolt took place in England in 1381. This revolt, which involved separate but related uprisings by peasants, eventually led to the end of feudalism in England.
The lower classes under feudalism were often badly treated. They lived in complete poverty and were enslaved to their lords. Despite their poverty, peasants in England at this time were required to pay taxes to support the king.
By then, the Black Death had severely reduced the population of England, but the king passed a law to ensure that workers could not ask for better employment terms (Such as higher wages). When some peasants refused to pay these taxes, they were fined or put in the stocks as punishment. But the discontent was felt in many places, and an uprising swelled across England. The leader of the revolt, Wat Tyler, was eventually killed by the mayor of London.
Although the demands for better working and living conditions were not immediately met, the upper classes realised that they could not rule over the peasants in the same ways they had in the past. They also realised that large groups of workers could be a significant political force to reckon with
Skilled labourers and craftsmen were now in short supply. Survivors who had been trained in different trades were highly valued by employers. They had more bargaining power and, hence, more social status.
In time, this situation helped to break down the already weakened system of feudalism. Instead of providing their labour free in return for a lord’s protection and support, knights and manor workers could now demand money for their services. In towns, workers could demand higher wages.
The wealth available to survivors of the Black Death is believed to have been at least five times more than it was before the plague struck. Spending increased in towns and cities, increasing the power and social position of surviving members of the middle class. Prices also began to increase in some areas.
In England, the Statute of Labourers was introduced in 1351. This law made it illegal for employers to increase workers’ wages to attract new It also made it illegal for workers to travel
to other areas for better wages. This law upset many peasant workers. Indeed, it created some of the unrest that led to the Peasants’ Revolt of 1381
One long-term effect on African society was the start of the slave trade. The first Africans brought
to Europe as slaves were captured by Portuguese captains Antão Gonçalves and Nuno Tristão in Cabo Branco (modern Mauritania) in 1441. From this point the Portuguese established a steady trade in African slaves. Just over 10 years later, the Spanish also entered the slave trade. Initially established to provide labour in Europe, as European nations began to establish colonies from the 16th century onwards the slave trade increased as labour was needed in these new lands. Africans from the Sahara region began to be taken as slaves in the 14th century, at first to boost Europe’s greatly reduced labour force.
After the Black Death had passed, many wealthy survivors in Europe chose to invest in art or literature as a means of expressing their gratitude for being left alive. Some became patrons. They funded talented individuals to create paintings, build churches and other public buildings, and to write literature. Some encouraged scientific research, hoping that answers might one day be found to what caused the Black Death. These developments added to the cultural rebirth in Europe at the time. This would later become known as the Renaissance (which means ‘rebirth’ in French).