3rd 9 Weeks Test

Sure! Here are the definitions for each AP Psychology term:

### Research Methods & Biases

- Replication – Repeating a research study to see if the results are consistent and can be generalized.

- Wording Effect – The way a question is phrased can influence how people respond in surveys or experiments.

- Random Sample – A sample in which every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected.

- Representative Sample – A sample that accurately reflects the characteristics of the population from which it is drawn.

- Hindsight Bias – The tendency to believe, after an event has occurred, that we "knew it all along."

- Operational Definition – A clear, precise definition of a variable in a study, including how it is measured.

### Correlation & Experimental Design

- Correlation – A measure of the relationship between two variables, but does not imply causation.

- Positive Correlation – When two variables increase or decrease together (e.g., study time and GPA).

- Correlation Coefficient – A statistical measure (ranging from -1 to +1) that shows the strength and direction of a relationship.

- Single Blind vs. Double Blind Research – In single blind, participants don’t know if they are in the experimental or control group; in double blind, both participants and researchers don’t know, reducing bias.

- Standard Deviation Percents – In a normal distribution, about 68% of data falls within 1 standard deviation, 95% within 2, and 99.7% within 3.

### Psychological Perspectives

- Humanistic – Focuses on personal growth, free will, and self-actualization (e.g., Maslow, Rogers).

- Biological – Examines how brain structures, neurotransmitters, and genetics influence behavior.

- Behavioral – Studies observable behaviors and the impact of learning (e.g., Skinner, Watson).

- Psychodynamic – Explores unconscious drives, childhood experiences, and inner conflicts (e.g., Freud).

- Evolutionary – Examines how natural selection influences behavior and mental processes.

- Sociocultural – Studies how culture, society, and social interactions shape behavior.

- Cognitive – Focuses on thinking, memory, problem-solving, and perception.

### Neuroscience & Neurotransmitters

- Multiple Sclerosis Effect on Neurons/Neurotransmitters – MS damages the myelin sheath of neurons, slowing nerve impulses and leading to motor and cognitive issues.

- Reflex Arc – A neural pathway that allows an automatic response (like pulling your hand away from heat) without conscious thought.

- Neurotransmitters – Chemical messengers that transmit signals across synapses between neurons.

- Serotonin – Regulates mood, sleep, appetite (low levels linked to depression).

- Norepinephrine – Involved in arousal, alertness, and fight-or-flight response.

- Acetylcholine – Important for memory, learning, and muscle contraction.

- Glutamate – Main excitatory neurotransmitter, important for memory and learning.

- GABA – Main inhibitory neurotransmitter, reduces neural activity and anxiety.

- Endorphins – Natural painkillers, linked to pleasure and euphoria.

- Dopamine – Influences movement, motivation, pleasure, and reward (linked to schizophrenia and Parkinson’s disease).

- Reuptake – The process of neurotransmitters being reabsorbed by the sending neuron after transmitting a signal.

- Cerebellum – Part of the brain responsible for balance, coordination, and fine motor control.

### Sensation & Perception

- Independent Variable – The variable that is manipulated in an experiment.

- Gate-Control Theory – Suggests the spinal cord has a “gate” that controls pain signals reaching the brain.

- Opponent Process Theory – Color vision theory stating we perceive colors in opposing pairs (red-green, blue-yellow, black-white).

- Trichromatic Theory – Color vision theory stating the retina has three types of color receptors (red, green, blue).

- Pitch – The highness or lowness of a sound, determined by frequency.

- Perceptual Set – A mental predisposition to perceive something in a certain way based on expectations and experience.

### Learning & Memory

- Law of Effect – Thorndike’s principle that behaviors followed by positive outcomes are strengthened, and those followed by negative outcomes are weakened.

- Weber’s Law – The principle that to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant percentage, not a constant amount.

- Heuristics – Mental shortcuts used to make decisions quickly and efficiently.

- Availability Heuristic – Judging the likelihood of an event based on how easily examples come to mind (e.g., fearing plane crashes after seeing one on the news).

- Representative Heuristic – Judging probability based on how well something matches a prototype (e.g., assuming someone who loves books is a librarian).

- Long-Term Potentiation (LTP) – The strengthening of neural connections through repeated stimulation, important for memory formation.

- Proactive Interference – When old information interferes with learning new information.

- Retrograde Interference – When new information disrupts recall of old information.

- Retrograde Amnesia – The inability to remember past memories before an injury.

- Anterograde Amnesia – The inability to form new memories after an injury.

- Procedural Memory – Memory for skills and actions (e.g., riding a bike).

- Semantic Memory – Memory for general knowledge and facts.

- Episodic Memory – Memory for personal experiences and events.