Chapter 12
WHAT IS CULTURE?
Culture refers to psychological attributes of groups.
Essential elements of culture include:
Symbols: Representations shared among a group.
Beliefs: What is considered true.
Values: What is deemed important.
Norms: Standard practices within a culture.
Practices: The activities that are performed by the group.
Cultural groups can consist of residents of a nation, members of an ethnicity, speakers of a language, or even followers of a common hobby.
Traditional definitions of culture often revolve around ethnicity, nationality, or language, but more nuanced understandings recognize variability within these boundaries.
Cultural differences can exist even in multi-ethnic societies like the U.S. and Canada.
CULTURE AND PERSONALITY
Personality psychology examines psychological differences between individuals, where culture plays a significant role.
Enculturation: The process through which individuals learn their native culture.
Acculturation: The process through which individuals adapt to a new culture.
Example of cultural differences: Japanese mothers may express concern if their children lack amae, a concept involving benevolent dependency, which may not be recognized or valued in Western cultures.
THE IMPORTANCE OF CROSS-CULTURAL DIFFERENCES
Historically, psychology has overlooked cross-cultural differences. Many theories are developed in Western contexts and applied universally without consideration for cultural variances.
Increasing interest in cross-cultural research is driven by the need for:
Better international understanding.
Validity of psychological theories across different cultures.
Appreciation of varied human experiences.
CROSS-CULTURAL UNDERSTANDING
Cultural misunderstandings can result in trivial or serious consequences.
Example: Differences in check-marking practices in India and the USA led to miscommunications at a hotel.
More severe implications observed in legal cases involving cultural practices, like those seen in Singapore and Denmark regarding appropriate child care practices.
GENERALIZABILITY OF THEORY AND RESEARCH
Concerns exist about the applicability of psychological findings primarily derived from Western-educated, industrialized, rich, and democratic (WEIRD) populations.
Despite improvements, a large portion of psychological research remains based on Western samples.
VARIETIES OF HUMAN EXPERIENCE
Exploring how humans perceive the world based on their cultural context reveals much about psychological constructs.
Cultural perspectives shape what's emphasized in experience:
Example: Individuals in collectivist cultures may focus less on individual attributes and more on community interrelations.
CHARACTERISTICS OF CULTURES
Etics and Emics: Concepts in cultural comparison where etics represent universal aspects and emics capture culture-specific dimensions.
Cross-cultural comparisons can also explore:
Tough vs. Easy: Some cultures present fewer difficult goals achieving which can affect success.
Achievement vs. Affiliation: Cultures may prioritize achievement stories or communal narratives.
Tightness and Looseness: Refers to how strictly cultures enforce social norms, with tight cultures having little tolerance for deviations.
Head vs. Heart: Valuation of analytical traits versus emotional strengths varies across cultures.
Individualism vs. Collectivism: Cultural dichotomy in prioritizing individual rights versus group harmony.
Honor, Face, and Dignity: Cultures differ in their emphasis on personal dignity, social honor, or the maintenance of social stature.
CULTURAL ASSessment AND PERSONALITY ASSESSMENT
Comparing traits across cultures often applies the Big Five personality model, which has been studied globally with varying results.
Cultural traits can differ significantly, and concepts of personality may not translate uniformly across cultures.
For instance, researchers have discovered that some personality traits considered universal may not appear in every culture.
THINKING
Cultural influences are hypothesized to shape generic cognitive patterns and styles.
Example: Asian cultures may demonstrate a more holistic reasoning style, understanding context rather than focusing solely on individual components.
VALUES
Research on cross-cultural values tries to identify universal versus culturally specific values.
Schwartz's Universal Values: Identifies ten key values that appear present across various cultures, arranged along axes of openness to change vs. conservatism, and self-enhancement vs. self-transcendence.
ORIGINS OF CULTURAL DIFFERENCES
Cultures evolve to adapt to diverse environmental challenges.
Distinctive cultural psychology may emerge based on ecological factors, affecting social structure and values.
CHALLENGES AND NEW DIRECTIONS FOR CROSS-CULTURAL RESEARCH
Key challenges involve avoiding ethnocentrism and understanding the complexities of diverse cultural backgrounds in research.
Emphasis on the interplay between individual traits and cultural norms is necessary for a holistic understanding of behavior.
THE UNIVERSAL HUMAN CONDITION
Despite cultural differences, commonalities exist in human experience, reinforcing the unifying aspects of the human condition across diversified cultural backgrounds.
WHAT IS CULTURE?
Culture refers to psychological attributes of groups, encompassing their shared patterns of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. It acts as a collective programming of the mind that distinguishes members of one group from another.
Essential elements of culture include:
Symbols: These are often tangible or intangible representations (like language, gestures, flags, or artifacts) that carry specific meanings recognized by a cultural group. For example, a handshake can symbolize greeting or agreement.
Beliefs: Core tenets or convictions held as true by a group, often influencing their worldview and decision-making. These can range from religious doctrines to common societal understandings of natural phenomena.
Values: Deep-seated principles or standards that guide judging what is important or good in life, influencing priorities and moral judgments. Honesty, respect, and freedom are examples often valued differently across cultures.
Norms: Unspoken or explicit rules that define acceptable behaviors, thoughts, and feelings in specific situations. These can be formal laws or informal social etiquette, like waiting your turn in a queue.
Practices: The observable behaviors and activities that individuals perform as part of their cultural group, including rituals, traditions, and everyday routines. Eating habits or holiday celebrations fall under practices.
Cultural groups can consist of residents of a nation, members of an ethnicity, speakers of a language, or even followers of a common hobby or profession (e.g., hacker culture, academic culture). This highlights the diverse levels at which culture operates.
Traditional definitions of culture often revolve around ethnicity, nationality, or language, implying a monolithic identity. However, more nuanced understandings recognize significant variability and subcultures within these broader boundaries, acknowledging that a nation is not a single culture.
Cultural differences can exist even in seemingly homogenous or multi-ethnic societies like the U.S. and Canada, where regional differences, immigrant communities, or even generational gaps can foster distinct cultural patterns.
CULTURE AND PERSONALITY
Personality psychology generally examines unique psychological differences between individuals. However, culture provides the framework and context within which personality develops and is expressed, playing a significant role in shaping these individual differences.
Enculturation: This is the lifelong process by which individuals learn and internalize the values, norms, beliefs, and practices of their native culture. It's an unconscious as well as conscious process, often beginning in early childhood through family, education, and social interactions. It shapes an individual's identity and worldview.
Acculturation: Involves the psychological and cultural changes that occur when individuals or groups come into contact with a different culture, either by migrating to a new country or experiencing pervasive cultural influences. This process can lead to various outcomes, from assimilation (adopting the new culture fully) to separation (maintaining the original culture) or integration (blending aspects of both).
Example of cultural differences in personality concepts: Japanese mothers may express concern if their children lack amae, a complex concept involving a benevolent, indulgent dependency and the expectation of passive love. This concept fosters close, interdependent relationships and mutual understanding, which may not be recognized, valued, or even named in traditional Western cultures that emphasize independence and self-reliance from an early age.
THE IMPORTANCE OF CROSS-CULTURAL DIFFERENCES
Historically, mainstream psychology, largely developed in Western industrialized nations, has often overlooked cross-cultural differences. Many foundational theories (e.g., Maslow's hierarchy of needs, theories of cognitive development) were developed using predominantly Western samples and were then assumed to be universally applicable, often leading to ethnocentric biases (
ethnocentrismis judging other cultures according to preconceptions originating in the standards and customs of one's own culture).Increasing interest in cross-cultural research is driven by several critical factors:
Better international understanding: In an increasingly globalized world, understanding cultural nuances is crucial for diplomatic relations, international business, and effective communication, preventing misunderstandings and fostering cooperation.
Validity of psychological theories across different cultures: Cross-cultural studies test the generalizability of psychological theories. If a theory only holds true in one cultural context, its claim to universality is weakened, prompting revisions or the development of culturally specific models.
Appreciation of varied human experiences: Studying diverse cultures enriches our understanding of the vast spectrum of human thought, emotion, and behavior, revealing novel psychological phenomena and alternative ways of life that challenge monolithic views of humanity.
CROSS-CULTURAL UNDERSTANDING
Cultural misunderstandings can result in a wide range of consequences, from trivial social awkwardness to severe legal and ethical dilemmas. These often stem from differing cultural norms regarding communication, social interaction, and problem-solving.
Example: Differences in check-marking practices. In the USA, a checkmark typically indicates agreement, while in some other cultures (like India, historically), it might mean "incorrect" or "no." This led to miscommunications at a hotel where guests from India misinterpreted booking confirmations.
More severe implications observed in legal cases involving cultural practices, like those seen in Singapore and Denmark regarding appropriate child care practices. For instance, in some parts of Singapore, it might be common for domestic workers to provide significant childcare, including bathing, which could be misinterpreted as neglect or inappropriate in Denmark where parental bathing is strongly emphasized. Such differences can lead to legal interventions concerning appropriate child care practices without fully understanding the cultural context.
GENERALIZABILITY OF THEORY AND RESEARCH
Significant concerns exist about the applicability of psychological findings, largely because a vast portion of research has historically been derived from populations described as WEIRD: Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, and Democratic. This means that a relatively small, unrepresentative segment of the global population has disproportionately shaped psychological knowledge.
The reliance on WEIRD samples raises questions about whether theories developed from these groups truly reflect universal human psychology or are merely culturally specific phenomena. For example, many cognitive biases identified in Western samples may manifest differently or not at all in non-Western contexts.
Despite improvements and growing awareness, a large portion of psychological research, particularly in high-impact journals, remains based on Western, often American, university student samples, perpetuating this bias and limiting the generalizability of conclusions to the broader human population.
VARIETIES OF HUMAN EXPERIENCE
Exploring how humans perceive, interpret, and interact with the world based on their specific cultural context reveals fundamental insights into the construction of psychological constructs like self-concept, emotion, and cognition. Culture does not just add an "extra layer" to human experience; it actively shapes its very fabric.
Cultural perspectives fundamentally shape what's emphasized and how information is processed in experience:
Example: Individuals in collectivist cultures (e.g., East Asian societies) may focus less on individual attributes, achievements, and unique personal feelings, and more on community interrelations, social roles, group harmony, and the impact of their actions on others. This contrasts with individualist cultures (e.g., Western European or North American societies) where self-contained identity, individual rights, and personal accomplishments are often prioritized. This difference can manifest in how people describe themselves, attribute success or failure, or even perceive visual information (e.g., holistic vs. analytic thinking).
CHARACTERISTICS OF CULTURES
Cultural psychology employs various frameworks to compare and contrast cultures, reveal underlying dimensions, and understand their impact on personality and behavior.
Etics and Emics: These are fundamental concepts in cross-cultural comparison.
Etics refer to universal or culture-general aspects of human behavior and psychology that are common across all cultures (e.g., all humans experience emotions, but how they express them might differ). They represent concepts that can be applied to all cultural groups.
Emics capture culture-specific dimensions, behaviors, and psychological processes that are unique to a particular cultural group and cannot be readily generalized. An emic approach seeks to understand a culture from the inside, often using concepts meaningful only within that culture (e.g., the Japanese concept of amae).
Cross-cultural comparisons can also explore:
Tough vs. Easy: This dimension refers to how challenging a culture makes life for its members to achieve valued goals. Easy cultures provide more means to satisfy individual needs and desires (e.g., readily available resources, fewer strict rules), while tough cultures present more difficult goals, demanding greater effort, which can significantly affect feelings of success and achievement.
Achievement vs. Affiliation: Cultures vary in their primary motivational focus. Some cultures heavily prioritize achievement, fostering individual success, competition, and recognition for personal accomplishments. Others emphasize affiliation, valuing communal narratives, group cohesion, social harmony, and relational success over individual prowess.
Tightness and Looseness: This concept, introduced by Michele Gelfand, refers to how strictly cultures enforce social norms and the degree of tolerance for deviations from those norms. Tight cultures (e.g., Japan, Singapore, Germany) have strong social norms and little tolerance for deviations, often emerging in contexts with historical threats (e.g., high population density, natural disasters). Loose cultures (e.g., New Zealand, Ukraine, USA) have weaker social norms and greater permissiveness for diverse behavior, often found in less historically threatened environments.
Head vs. Heart: This dimension describes whether a culture values analytical traits, creativity, curiosity, and learning ("head" virtues) versus emotional strengths such as fairness, mercy, gratitude, and hope ("heart" virtues). For example, cities prioritizing "head" might attract more creative professionals, while "heart" cultures might emphasize community support.
Individualism vs. Collectivism: This is a widely studied cultural dichotomy where:
Individualist cultures (e.g., most Western countries) prioritize the rights, needs, and goals of the individual over the group. The self is seen as independent, and personal autonomy is highly valued.
Collectivist cultures (e.g., many East Asian, Latin American, and African countries) emphasize group harmony, social cohesion, and interdependence. The self is often defined in relation to the group, and loyalty to the collective is paramount.
Honor, Face, and Dignity Cultures: These represent different foundational moral frameworks:
Dignity cultures (e.g., many Western cultures) emphasize the inherent worth and equality of individuals, regardless of social standing, and respect for individual rights and personal autonomy. Self-worth is internal and not easily lost.
Honor cultures (e.g., often found in the Middle East, Latin America, and Southern Europe) stress the importance of reputation and respect (honor) within a social hierarchy. Honor can be easily lost through insult or perceived weakness and must be actively defended.
Face cultures (e.g., prevalent in East Asia) focus on maintaining one's social standing and avoiding public embarrassment or loss of "face." Harmony and deference in social interactions are crucial to preserve mutual face.
CULTURAL ASSESSMENT AND PERSONALITY ASSESSMENT
Comparing personality traits across cultures often involves applying established Western models, such as the Big Five personality model (Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism). While the Big Five has been studied globally, its universal applicability remains a subject of debate, with varying results regarding factor structure and interpretability across diverse cultural contexts.
Research suggests that while some traits may show universality, the nuances and manifestations can differ significantly. For example, what constitutes "Extraversion" in a highly individualistic society might look different, or even be perceived differently, in a collectivist one.
Moreover, cultural traits can differ substantially from traits defined in Western psychology. The very concepts of personality and self may not translate uniformly across cultures. Some cultures may not have a direct equivalent for the Western notion of an individual, fixed "personality," instead emphasizing relational aspects or state-dependent behaviors. Consequently, researchers have discovered that some personality traits considered conceptually universal may not appear as distinct or equally salient factors in every culture when measured using standard instruments. This often necessitates the development of indigenous personality inventories.
THINKING
Cultural influences are hypothesized to profoundly shape generic cognitive patterns and styles, influencing how individuals perceive, process, and organize information about the world. Theories suggest that cultures emphasize different modes of reasoning, problem-solving, and attention.
Example: Research, particularly by Richard Nisbett and colleagues, has shown that individuals in East Asian cultures (e.g., China, Japan, Korea) may demonstrate a more holistic reasoning style. This involves attending to the entire field, perceiving relationships between objects and their context, and emphasizing interdependence and harmony. In contrast, individuals in Western cultures may exhibit a more analytic reasoning style, focusing on individual objects, detaching them from their context, and relying on formal logic and categorization. This difference impacts everything from visual perception (e.g., the "frame-line task"), to causal attribution, and even how scientific theories are formulated.
VALUES
Extensive research on cross-cultural values strives to identify universal versus culturally specific values, understanding what societies deem important and how these values drive behavior. Values serve as guiding principles in people's lives.
Schwartz's Universal Values: Psychologist Shalom Schwartz and his colleagues have conducted extensive cross-cultural research identifying ten key values that appear to be recognized (though prioritized differently) across various cultures globally. These values are categorized into four higher-order value types and arranged along two primary, opposing axes:
Openness to Change vs. Conservatism:
Openness to Change: Emphasizes intellectual and emotional autonomy, valuing self-direction (independent thought, choosing goals) and stimulation (excitement, novelty).
Conservatism: Emphasizes self-restriction, order, and resistance to change, valuing security (safety, harmony), conformity (adhering to social norms), and tradition (respect for customs).
Self-Enhancement vs. Self-Transcendence:
Self-Enhancement: Emphasizes individual success and dominance over others, valuing power (social status, prestige) and achievement (personal success).
Self-Transcendence: Emphasizes concern for the welfare and interests of others, valuing universalism (understanding, appreciation, protection for all people and nature) and benevolence (preserving and enhancing the welfare of those with whom one is in frequent personal contact).
Understanding these dimensions helps explain cultural variation in attitudes and behaviors.
ORIGINS OF CULTURAL DIFFERENCES
Cultures are not static; they are dynamic systems that evolve over time, adapting to a variety of environmental challenges, historical events, and technological advancements. These adaptations shape unique cultural psychologies.
Distinctive cultural psychology may emerge based on various ecological factors, including:
Geographic and Climatic Conditions: For example, cultures in harsh environments (e.g., deserts, arctic regions) may develop stronger norms for cooperation and resource sharing due to survival needs. Agricultural societies might value patience and long-term planning more than nomadic ones.
Resource Availability: Abundance or scarcity of resources can influence economic systems, social structures (e.g., hierarchy vs. egalitarianism), and values (e.g., individualism vs. collectivism).
Population Density: High population density can lead to tighter social norms to reduce conflict, whereas lower density might allow for looser norms and greater individual expression.
Pathogen Prevalence: Regions with historical high prevalence of infectious diseases have been linked to more conservative cultural traits, such as xenophobia and conformity, as these traits might have served as adaptive responses to limit disease transmission.
These factors interact to shape social organization, practices, and values, leading to the diverse tapestry of human cultures.
CHALLENGES AND NEW DIRECTIONS FOR CROSS-CULTURAL RESEARCH
Cross-cultural research faces significant methodological and conceptual challenges. Key among these is avoiding ethnocentrism, the tendency to interpret or judge other cultures solely from the perspective of one's own culture, leading to biased observations and conclusions. Researchers must strive for cultural relativism, understanding phenomena within their specific cultural context.
Additional complexities include:
Language Barriers: Ensuring accurate translation and conceptual equivalence of research instruments.
Response Biases: Different cultural norms for self-reporting (e.g., modesty bias in some East Asian cultures).
Sampling Issues: Obtaining truly representative samples from diverse cultural backgrounds.
Understanding the complexities of diverse cultural backgrounds: Recognizing that cultures are not monolithic and vary internally.
Modern cross-cultural research emphasizes a more nuanced understanding, moving beyond simple comparisons to focus on the dynamic interplay between individual traits and cultural norms. This involves examining cultural contexts as moderators, mediators, and even direct shapers of psychological processes, aiming for a more holistic and integrated understanding of behavior. New directions also include multicultural psychology, studying individuals who navigate multiple cultural identities.
THE UNIVERSAL HUMAN CONDITION
Despite the rich tapestry of cultural differences that shape human experience, research also reveals substantial commonalities in the human condition. These universals underscore the shared biological, psychological, and social foundations that unite humanity across diversified cultural backgrounds.
Examples include basic biological needs (food, water, shelter), fundamental emotional expressions (happiness, sadness, anger), the capacity for language, social bonding, and moral reasoning. While cultures might mold the expression of these universals, their underlying existence reinforces the unifying aspects of being human, emphasizing that beneath the layers of cultural variation, a shared humanity persists.