The Americans had long-established civilizations before European arrival
First inhabitants spread across North & South American
Warming climate led to the extinction of large animals
Agricultural development began 9,000 years ago
developed simultaneously in the Near East and Americas
Originated in Mexico & Andes, then spread
Maize, squash, beans —> basis of agriculture
No livestocks —> no plowing, no natural fertilizer
affected farming efficiency compared to Eurasian civilizations
Pre-Columbian Americas were not empty; they had cities, roads, irrigation systems, and trade networks.
Tenochtitlán (Aztec capital) had a population of 250,000 and featured impressive structures like a great temple, royal palace, and central market, rivaling European capitals.
Inca Kingdom (modern-day Peru) had a population of 12 million and was connected by 2,000 miles of roads and bridges along the Andes.
North American civilizations were not as large or centralized as the Aztecs or Incas but had developed sophisticated farming, hunting, fishing, and political systems.
Technological differences:
North American societies lacked metal tools, gunpowder, scientific knowledge for navigation, literacy, and wheeled vehicles (due to absence of domesticated animals like horses).
These perceived "backwardness" justified European conquest.
Despite these differences, Indian societies had perfected agriculture, hunting, fishing, political organization, religion, and trade networks
Native Americans constructed a community on a series of giant semicircular mounds on a steep cliff that gave view of the Mississippi River —> Poverty Point
Poverty Point: commercial and government center for trades throughout Mississippi and Ohio River Valley
Mound Builders: encountered the burial bounds they created and traded across half the continent
After the mound builders had declines, another culture flourished in the Mississippi River Valley —> city of Cahokia
Hopi & Zuni lived in settled villages for over 3,000 years
Peak culture (900–1200 CE): built planned towns, large multi-family dwellings, dams, and canals
Pueblo Bonita (Chaco Canyon, NM) was 5 stories high with 600+ rooms, the largest dwelling in the U.S. until the 1880s
Decline likely due to drought; survivors moved south & east, developing desert farming with irrigation
Spanish called them "Pueblo Indians" due to their small villages (pueblos)
Pacific Coast had densely populated independent villages relying on fishing, hunting sea mammals, and gathering plants/nuts
Columbia River had 25 million salmon annually, providing abundant food
Great Plains Indians hunted buffalo (descendants of giant bison); before horses, they hunted on foot
Some Plains groups lived in agricultural communities
Hundreds of tribes lived in eastern North America, from the Gulf of Mexico to Canada
Diet included corn, squash, beans, fishing, and hunting deer, turkeys, and other animals
Trade routes covered the region; tribes frequently fought over goods, captives, and revenge
Diplomacy and peace agreements were also common
No centralized authority existed until the 15th century, when leagues and confederations formed
Southeast: Choctaw, Cherokee, and Chickasaw formed loose alliances
Northeast (NY & PA): Five Iroquois tribes (Mohawk, Oneida, Cayuga, Seneca, Onondaga) formed the Great League of Peace, bringing stability
The Great Council met yearly to coordinate relations with outsiders
Native American societies were highly diverse, with different political systems, religions, and languages
Indians had no concept of a unified "America" and identified with their local tribe or confederacy
Initially, Indians viewed Europeans as just another group and sought to use them to gain advantages over rival tribes
The clear divide between "Indians" and "whites" only developed later in the colonial era
Native American societies shared common religious characteristics despite diversity
Religious ceremonies were tied to farming and hunting
Believed in animism—spiritual power existed in animals, plants, trees, water, wind, and other natural elements
Ceremonies aimed to harness supernatural forces for human benefit
Hunters performed rituals to honor animal spirits; other ceremonies sought good harvests or protection from evil spirits
Religious rites helped define community membership
Shamans, medicine men, and religious leaders held respected positions
No sharp divide between natural vs. supernatural or secular vs. religious activities
Many Indians believed in a single Creator at the top of the spiritual hierarchy
Europeans saw Indian religions as pagan (non-Christian) and sought to convert them to Christianity
Indians viewed land as a common resource, not something to be bought and sold. Village leaders assigned land for families to use, but ownership was about the right to use, not control over the land itself
Black Hawk explained that land was given by the Great Spirit for sustenance, not for private ownership
There was no market for real estate before Europeans.
Indians did not focus on accumulating wealth. In areas where villages moved due to depleted resources, owning many possessions made little sense
Status mattered, but reputation was based on generosity rather than material wealth. Chiefs lived better than others, but their status came from their willingness to share
Some tribes, like the Natchez, had rigid social structures, but wealth was less important in Indian societies than in European ones
Generosity was highly valued, and gift-giving was crucial. Trade was not just a transaction but included ceremonial exchange
There were no extreme inequalities, and no one went hungry in Indian societies. Roger Williams noted that there were no beggars among New England's Indians
Gender relations in Indian societies were different from European norms
Women had freedom in sexual relations and could divorce their husbands
Most societies were matrilineal, where children belonged to the mother’s family, not the father’s
Tribal leaders were usually men, but women had key roles in religious ceremonies, selecting leaders, and tribal meetings
Indian women owned dwellings and tools, and the husband generally moved to the wife’s family
Men showed masculinity through hunting or fishing, while women handled household duties and most agriculture
In Pueblo societies, men were the primary farmers due to less hunting
European views of Indians were extreme, seeing them as either "noble savages" or "uncivilized barbarians."
Some Europeans, like Giovanni da Verrazano, saw Indians as "beautiful," but over time, negative views dominated
Early descriptions of Indians as barbaric centered on their religion, land use, and gender relations
Europeans believed Indians lacked true religion and worshipped the devil, labeling shamans as "witch doctors" and their spiritual beliefs as superstition
Land use: Europeans saw the land as a commodity for economic use, whereas Indians saw it as a spiritual world
Property rights: Europeans argued that since Indians didn't "cultivate" the land in the European sense, they had no claim to it.
Despite advanced agriculture, Europeans often described Indians as nomads without settled communities
Gender relations: Europeans saw Indian men as weak and women as mistreated because they worked in the fields, contrasting with European gender norms where men were seen as authoritative
Europeans believed that by subduing Indians, they were bringing freedom—the freedom of religion, private property, and "correct" gender roles
North and South America hemispheres were very developed— contained cities, roads, irrigation systems, extensive trade networks, and large structures
The Aztec Empire— Tenochtitlan as the capital
Native American society was really underdeveloped in the North than it was in the South, which made it more easy and justifiable for the Europeans to conquer
Northern Native Americans lacked metal tools, literacy, technology, gunpowder, and scientific knowledge for long-distance navigation
Liberty as understood by Native Americans differed from European notions
Some Europeans, like a colonial official, admired the Iroquois' absolute liberty, where no one had superiority over others and servitude was absent
However, colonizers viewed Indian societies as having no real concept of freedom. Early dictionaries of Indian languages lacked words for "freedom," "liberty," or terms related to authority like "despotic power" or "oppressed subjects"
Europeans thought Indians' lack of established governments and fixed laws meant they were too free, with no respect for authority or discipline
Freedom in Indian societies was not linked to personal independence or private property as it was in Europe
While slavery was not widespread, personal liberty was valued and seen as the opposite of enslavement
Kinship ties and the community's well-being were more important than individual autonomy. Group autonomy and connectedness took precedence
The arrival of Europeans with their ideas of freedom made it a growing concern for American Indians, ironically as they became more dependent on the colonizers
European views of freedom before colonization were diverse, shaped by ideas from ancient Greece and modern political struggles
Freedom was often seen as a moral or spiritual condition, not just a political or social status
"Christian liberty" meant freeing oneself from sin through embracing Christ's teachings, aligning with the idea that those who served God were "free from sin"
Servitude and freedom were not opposites in this context; being a servant to God was seen as a path to spiritual freedom
Religious liberty had no connection to modern notions of religious toleration. Every European nation had an established church, and dissenters were persecuted
Religious uniformity was seen as crucial for public order; the idea of personal religious choice was almost unknown at the time
Religious wars in Europe were centered on which religion would dominate, not the individual right to choose one's religion
Secular liberty in early modern Europe was linked to obedience to a higher authority, often viewed as obedience to law
Aristotle saw the law as liberty's salvation, not its enemy
European societies were highly hierarchical, with social inequality built into every relationship
The king ruled by divine authority, while those of higher rank demanded deference from those below
Coverture laws me
ant that married women surrendered their legal identity to their husbands, unable to own property, sign contracts, or seek divorce
Male dominance defined family life, with husbands having exclusive control over their wives' domestic labor and sexual relations
Political writers of the 16th century compared the king’s authority over subjects to a husband’s authority over his family, both viewed as ordained by God
Challenging these forms of authority was seen as a threat to the social order, supported by a New Testament passage about male headship over women and Christ’s headship over the Church
In hierarchical European society, liberty was tied to knowing one’s social place and fulfilling duties specific to one's rank
Most people lacked economic independence, with property qualifications limiting voting rights to a small portion of the male population
Labor contracts required strict obedience, with criminal penalties for violations
Medieval concepts of
liberty centered on specific privileges granted by contract, royal decree, or purchase, such as self-government or the right to practice a trade
A "liberty" was defined as a privilege offering benefits beyond the ordinary subject's rights
Only those with "freedom of the city" could engage in certain economic activities
Many modern civil liberties were not in place, with the government regulating religion and suppressing dissenting publications
Personal independence was reserved for a small portion of the population, and "masterless men" (those without regular jobs) were seen as a threat
European countries that colonized the New World claimed to be spreading freedom for both their own populations and Native Americans
Commercial sea route to Asia
Circumvention of Islamic middlement
Portugal’s exploration, extension of trading empires
West Africa
Cape of Good Hope
India
Far East
Portugal’s colonization of Atlantic Islands
Sugar plantations
Slaves from Africa
traditional patterns of African slavery
acceleration of slave trade following European arrival
Quest for westward route to Asia
Sponsorship of Spain
First Spanish presence in New World
Settlements at Hispaniola
Explorations by Amerigo Vespucci
First English and Portuguese presence in New World
John Cabot (Newfoundland)
Pedro Cabral (Brazil)
Three G’s
Gold: acquisitions of wealth
Glory: national glory
God: spread of catholicism
The Conquistadores
Vasco Núñez de Balboa's expedition to Panama, the Pacific
Ferdinand Magellan's expe
dition around the world
Hernán Cortés's conquest of the Aztecs
Background on Aztec empire
Defeat, devastation, subjugation of the Aztecs
Francisco Pizarro’s conquest of the Incas
Background on Inca Empire
Defeat, devastation, subjugation of the Incas
Columbian Exchange of goods and people
Devastation of Indian population
Isolation from Eurasian diseases— weren’t immune to European diseases
Smallpox
Enslavement— harsh conditions they were working under
War
The Atlantic and pacific became highways for the exchange of goods and the movement of people
Spanish empire included the regions richest in natural resources and very populous
rivaled Ancient Rome
because of the destructiveness conquistadors did, Spanish crown replaced them with lawyers and bureaucrats
Council of Indies: main body in Spain for colonial administration
government reflected absolutism
authority went to king —> council of Indies —> viceroys
catholic church played a significant part because it encouraged the practice of faith, morals, and treatment of Native Americans
Creoles: people born in the colonies of European ancestry
royal officials were generally appointees from Spain, rather than creoles
local elites began to start enjoying authority over colonial affairs
Spanish forced Native Americans to work in gold and silver mines, which supplied the empire’s wealth
Haciendas: large-scaled farms controlled by Spanish land-lords
Spanish also forced Native Americans to work on haciendas
Native Americans performed most of labor
Government tried to stop non-spanish and non-Christians from emigrating to the Americas but the opportunity for social advancements drew many colonist from Spain
Peninsulares: people of European birth who stood atop the social hierarchy
Peninsulares made up a tiny portion of the population in Spanish America
Spanish authorities eventually granted Native Americans certain rights within colonial society and looked forward to their eventual assimilation
1514: Spanish government approved of inter-”racial” marriages
partly as way to convert Native Americans to Christianity
Mestizos: mixed origin of European and Native descendant
Virgin Mary: symbol of mixing Spanish and Native American culture
1600: Mestizos made up a large part of urban population
1531: Juan Diego reported seeing visions of Virgin Mary looking like a dark-skinned Native American
Europeans had immense confidence to their own cultures and beliefs; thought anyone who didn’t have the same values were heathens (“non-christians)
1492- Spain territorial unification, rise of powerful government, enforcement of religious orthodoxy by the expulsion of Muslims and Jews
After Columbus’ voyage, Pope Alexander VI divided non-christian world between Portugal and Spain
Portugal got Brazil; Spain got the rest
Protestantism: 95-thesis, insisting bible should be for its own interpretation
Spain wanted to convert Native Americans to Orthodox Catholicism because they didn’t want the Native Americans to fall into protestantism
Spanish rule decimated Native American population w/ the immense labor conditions
Spanish would transform Native American political, spiritual, religious, and economic life
Made a book titled A Very Brief Account of the Destruction of the Indies
vouched for Native American freedom while also saying Spain had a right to rule in America
thought imploring slaves from Africa would protect Native Americans from exploitation
Because of Las Casa’s effort, Spain in 1542 made the new laws known, commanding that Native Americans no longer be enslaved
1550: encomienda system is abolished
Repartimiento System: residents in Native American villages remained legally free and entitled to wages. but where still required to perform a fixed amount of labor each year
Government established repartimiento system
Native Americans were not slaves BUT they still faced many allowed abuses by Spanish landlords and priests who made them go on missions for the conversion process
Spanish treatment got slightly better because Native Americans converted to Christianity
brought Education, medical care, goods from Europe
Black Legend: the image of Spain as a uniquely brutal and exploitive colonizer
the Black Legend would eventually provide a potential justification for other European powers to challenge Spain
first US colony was Puerto Rico
gold
Juan Ponce de Leon sent a considerable amount of gold while keeping some to himself
1513: Leon embarked FL in search of wealth, slaves, and eternal youth —> found nothing
many explorations ended in decimation of Native American societies, towns, and villages in North America
especially because de Sato in particular, who was very brutal
Spain hopes to establish military there to fight off pirates seeking for silver and gold on the treasure fleet
spain wanted to prevent French attacks, as well
1565: Philip II authorized Pedro Menedez de Avil’s colonizing expedition to FL
This led to the founding of St. Augustine, the first permanent European settlement in the continental United States, served as a strategic military outpost
Spanish religious missionaries set up outposts in hopes to convert Native Americans to Christianity
1597: local Guale Indians up-rise in revolt of erasing Indian culture
Ultimately destroyed
FL failed to attract settlers and forts were of disuse
expeditions were failures until 1598
1598: Juan de Onate led a group of 400 soldiers, colonists, and missionaries north from Mexico to establish permanent settlement
Onate’s nephew and 14 soldiers were killed by people of Acoma —> Onate punished the Native Americans by killing them, forcing women into servitude, making the men cut their leg off
Onate was punished for his treatment towards the Indians and because he found nothing value in area
In 1610, Spain established the capital of New Mexico at Santa Fe, which was the first European settlement in Southwest
Francisan friars worked relentlessly to convert Indians to Catholicism, often using intimidation and violence
As the inquisition became more intense, friars began to burn sacred Indian objects, which alienated conversion to Christianity
1660: prolonged drought & authorities inability to protect villagers from attacks by marauding Navajo and Apache Indians —> discontent —> Pueblo Revolt
August 1680: Pueblo’s united in a coordinated uprising against Spanish rule, successfully driving the colonizers out of their territory for a brief period
1692: Spanish reconquered New Mexico
communities tried welcoming them back for military protection
the establishment of Spain’s empire shifted global trade
atlantic replaced the overland route to Asia as the major axis of global trade
17th century: English, Dutch, and French established colonies in North America
English settled for agricultural settlements, while France settled for commercial ventures
French & Dutch used Indians as trading partners and military allies
aimed to find gold and to locate a North-West Passage
1608: Samuel de Champlain founded Quebec, marking the beginning of permanent French settlement in North America
1673: Jacques Marquette and Louis Joliet located the Mississippi River
1681: Robert de La Salle claimed the entire Mississippi River basin for France
New France eventually formed a giant arc along the St. Lawrence, Mississippi, and Ohio River Valley
French Canada was ruled by the Company of New France (1663)
granted land along St. Lawrence River to higher authorities
officers would transport colonists to take their place in feudal society
New French inhabitants increased, tso they sent many fewer emigrants to the Western Hemisphere
government feared significant emigration would undermine France as a great power & might compromise trades/good relations w/ Indians
While they had its fur trade, NF depended on friendly relations w/ local Indians
French prided themselves on humane policies
relied on Indians to supply furs to trading posts
French worked series of military, commercial, and diplomatic connections w/ Indians
Samuel de Champlain dreams of creating a colony w/ mutual respect between diverse people
the jesuit did seek to convert Indians to Catholicism but they allowed them to keep their traditions and religious practices, unlike the Spanish
indians were introduced to the burgeoning economy & rivalries
hunting —> quest for marketable commodities
1615: Huron forged trading alliance w/ French —> many converted to Catholicism
1640: epidemics & Iroquois attacked by dutch = destroyed tribes
on the “middle ground” of the Upper Great Lakes in French America, whites and Indians encountered each other for many years on a basis of relative equality
Metis: children of marriages between Indian women and French traders/officials
became guides, traders, and interpreters
1609: Henry Hudson sailed into NY harbor, searching for a Northwest Passage to Asia but instead found himself trading European goods w/ Indians for fur
1614: Dutch established an outpost at Fort Orange
10 years later —> Dutch West Company settled colonists on Manhattan Island
Amsterdam was Europe’s foremost shipping and banking center (Netherlands Thriving)
Dutch invented joint-stock company —> modern capitalism
Amsterdam was a haven for persecuted protestants from all of Europe
liberty
freedom of press
freedom of private religious practices
not governed democratically
new amsterdam was a fortified military outpost controlled by appointees of the West India Company
slaves were given “half-freedom”
allowing them to work for pay and own property, but they were still subject to certain restrictions and obligations to their masters
dutch women had rights (their own identity— not dependent on a man)
freedom of conscience extended to religious devotion exercised in private
dutch had an official religion
Dutch Reformed Church: one of the protestant national churches to emerge from reformation
governor petrus stuyvesant saw diversity as a threat to godly, prosperous order
refused to let other people of different religion to practice faith in the open
strict policies
1657: Flushing Remonstrance
petition by English settlers protesting the governors order to live in Flushing (Long Island) —> they got arrested
Dutch-West India Company promised religious freedom and cheap livestock and labor after 6 years
surrendered fur-trade BUT profitable commerce to all newcomers
Patroons: shareholders who agreed to transport tenants for agricultural labor
1629: company adopted a plan of “Freedoms and Exemptions” offering large estates patroons
patroons were required to purchase a title to the land from Indians
“freedoms” were that of a medieval loss
10% to tenants annual income
complete authority over law enforcement
Kiliaen Van Rensselaer would be the only concerning patron, as he owed 700k acres of land in Hudson Valley
eventual sporadic uprising
sent 1 million people overseas to populate and govern colonies but very few made it to their destinations
new netherlands became tiny —> operated under Swedish flag to circumvent the West India trade company
Dutch came for trade, not conquest —> many identified Indians as victims to Spanish colonization
saw Indian sovereignty, but also required tribes to make payments to colonial authorities
1640s: governor William Kieft seized fertile farmland from Algonquian Indians, which started 3 years war
Dutch established diplomacy w/ Iroquois Confederation
“middle-ground”
boundaries shifted constantly
Borderland: a meeting place of people where geographical and cultural borders are not clearly defined