ap1 final

1. know the three planes and what directions they are found in

o   frontal: anterior to posterior position

o   transverse/horizontal: superior to inferior position

o   sagittal: medial to lateral position

2. Name the two major ventral body cavities plus the major organs found in them.

The two major ventral body cavities are 

• Thoracic (contains the lungs and the heart)

• Abdominopelvic cavity (contains stomach, liver, gallbladder, spleen, pancreas, small intestine, kidneys, large intestine, small intestine and adrenal glands) 

3. Name all of the potential cavities that the heart and lungs reside in.

thoracic cavity contains the lungs and the heart

4. Finally, list the six levels of organization in nature.

1. chemical

2. cells 

3. tissue 

4. organ

5. organ systems

6. organism

2. A. Describe the three components of an atom in terms of charge and location. Define atomic mass and atomic number.

An atom can be broken down into three different compositions of  subatomic particles:

protons – part of the nucleus; possess a positive (+) charge

neutrons – part of the nucleus; possess no charge

electrons – move in “orbits” about the nucleus; possess a negative (-) charge; occupy the majority of the space of an atom. 

B. For carbon, state its atomic mass (whole number) and atomic number plus the numbers of each of its subatomic components that are listed in your answer to part A.

Carbon has an atomic mass of 12, atomic number of 6, with 6 protons and 6 neutrons, 6 electrons

C. Finally, using carbon as an example, define what an isotope is.

An isotope is a variation of the same element but with differing amounts of neutrons. For instance, carbon-12 contains 6 protons and 6 neutrons while carbon-13, its isotope, will contain 6 protons and 7 neutrons.

3. A. Discuss why the description for the cell membrane is appropriately labeled the “Fluid Mosaic Model of Cell Membranes.”

The Fluid Mosaic Model is an appropriate label of cell membranes because it is a mixed combination or mosaic of phospholipids, glycolipids, cholesterol, and proteins. The fluid part is due to the phospholipids that spin or twirl, move side to side and flex their tails.

2. List five major organelles found in a typical body cell and their primary function.

1. mitochondria: major cellular site for ATP manufacturing for energy

2. lysosomes: digest unneeded and unwanted biological molecules aka vacuum of the cell

3. Golgi apparatus: modifies and stores protein that are formed by rough ER

4. Rough ER: has ribosomes attached to surface; when ribosomes make proteins, they enter rough ER and are modified with sugar or lipid groups

5. smooth ER: where lipids are assembled

3. Briefly list the four features of enzymes that enable them to lower the activation energy.

1. speed up reactions

2. can be reused

3. can catalyze a chemical reaction in both directions

4. selective about substrates they will bind

4. A. Discuss the four groups of organic macromolecules by listing the major subclasses of each group (where applicable).

1. proteins - amino acids

2. lipids - fats, phospholipids, sterols

3. carbohydrates - mono-, di-, and polysaccharides

4. nucleotide structures - nucleotides

2. Give three examples of compounds found in each major group

1. proteins: hemoglobin, keratin, collagen

2. lipids: stearic acid, oleic acid, estrogen

3. carbohydrates: fructose, glucose, sucrose

4. nucleotide structures: DNA, RNA, ATP

5. A. What is the deepest layer of skin called? Identify its 2 major sublevels and, for each one, name the major type of tissue found in it.

• Dermis is the deepest layer of the skin. Its 2 major sublevels are:

  • papillary: made up of loose areolar CT

  • reticular: made up of dense irregular connective tissue

B. What is the most superficial layer of skin called? Identify the five sub-layers in order from the deepest to the most superficial.

• Epidermis is the most superficial layer of the skin

• 5 sublayers from deepest to most superficial: 

  • stratum basale (deepest)

  • stratum spinosum

  • stratum granulosum

  • stratum lucidum

  • stratum corneum (most superficial)

C. In which sub-layer is cell death first exhibited?

• stratum granulosum

D. In which two sub-layers is active mitosis occurring?

• In the stratum basale and stratum spinosum sublayers

E. Name the four skin cell types found in this superficial layer of skin.

1. keratinocytes

2. melanocytes

3. Langerhans or dendritic cells

4. Merkel or tactile cells

6. A. List the four major tissue types

1. epithelial

2. connective

3. muscles

4. nervous

2. Name the subtypes for each major type plus one location where each are found.

1. epithelial subtypes:

   1. simple squamous - blood vessels

   2. simple cuboidal - glands

   3. simple columnar - stomach lining

   4. pseudostratified columnar - bronchi/trachea lining

   5. transitional - bladder

   6. stratified squamous - skin

2. connective subtypes:

   1. loose - areolar (below skin), adipose (hypodermis), reticular (liver)

   2. dense - regular (tendons), irregular (organ capsules)

   3. bone and cartilage - hyaline cartilage (knee), elastic cartilage (external ear), fibrocartilage (between vertebrae)

   4. blood (bone marrow)

3. muscles

   1. skeletal - bicep

   2. smooth - walls of hollow organs

   3. cardiac - heart

4. nervous

   1. neurons - PNS/CNS

   2. neuroglia - PNS/CNS

7. A. List the five functions of the integumentary system.

1. protection

2. sensation

3. temperature regulation

4. vitamin D production

5. vitamin D storage and excretion

2. List the three types of membranes.

1. serous membrane

2. mucus membrane

3. synovial membrane

3. Which membrane type contains mesothelia? 

Serous membrane

4. Which one has the lamina propria?

Mucus membrane

5. Which membrane type is largely made up of only different types of connective tissue?

Synovial membrane

8. A. Describe the Sliding-Filament Model of muscle contraction

Is the process used by muscles to contract. It is a cycle of repetitive events that causes actin and myosin myofilaments to slide over each other, contracting the sarcomere and generating tension in the muscle.

• ATP --> ADP + P 

• Crossbridge 

• Powerstroke

• ATP binds to myosin bulbous head 

• Release stroke 

• Repeat above steps over and over x10000....

2. List the structures of a muscle from largest to the most microscopic.

Myofilament, sarcomere, myofibril muscle fiber, fascicle, and whole muscle being the largest. 

3. Name the three connective tissue coverings found in a muscle.
   1. Endomysium

2. Perimysium

3. Epimysium 

4. Explain why rigor mortis occurs.

All the calcium ions that were in the sarcoplasm at the time of death will remain plus calcium ions will continue to leak out of the SR, Cross-bridges remain because there is no ATP begging made to cause the release of the stroke. So, the muscles will remain stiff until degeneration begins. 

9. A. Describe the generation and completion of an action potential.

1. RMP

2. Na+ stimulus channels open

3. Threshold 

4. Voltage activated Na+ gates open

5. Voltage activated Na+ gates close

6. Voltage activated K+ gates open

7. Voltage activated K+ gates close

8. Undershoot

9. Na+/K+ ATP pump

10. Return to original RMP

2. Indicate in your description where the three phases occur.

• depolarization: steps 4-5

• repolarization: steps 6-7

• hyperpolarization: steps 8-9

3. Indicate when the absolute and relative refractory periods occur and define them.

period of time during which a second action potential ABSOLUTELY cannot be initiated, no matter how large the applied stimulus is. 

Absolute refractory period of muscle action potential refers to the time interval when the voltage gated Na+  are inactivated.

10. A. Provide a short description of the steps of the process of repair to a broken bone.

1. Hematoma repair

2. Soft callus formation (fibrocartilage) 

3. Bony callus formation (spongy bone)

4. remodeling 

2. Name the 3 energy sources for muscular contractions.

1. creatine phosphate

2. anaerobic respiration

3. aerobic respiration

3. List the four major properties of muscle.

1. contractility

2. excitability

3. extensibility

4. elasticity 

4. List the steps for the excitation-contraction coupling in striated muscles.

• Action potentials proceed down the T-tubule

• Action potential act on terminal cisterns of SR and causes calcium channels to be released in the sarcoplasm

• Calcium floods the sarcoplasm and acts on troponin

• Tropomyosin slides into the grooves of actin freeing up the active sites

11. A. Describe the functional organization of the human nervous system.

• The human nervous system is composed of the central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS)

  • The CNS contains only the brain and spinal cord

  • PNS is divided into divisions of sensory and motor neurons

    • Both sensory and motor divisions are found with visceral and somatic divisions

2. For the hindbrain, list the three major components and provide a brief description of their function.

1. medulla oblongata: responsible for sleep cycle/itch/tickle/heart rate/ BP (pretty much all basic functions necessary to live)

2. cerebellum: responsible for movement/3D position

3. pons: functions are relay for information, exchange between cerebellum and cerebrum, information highway

3. For the forebrain, list three major components and provide a brief description of their function.

1. thalamus: master switching center for sensory information or information filter

2. hypothalamus: center of homeostasis like sex, hunger, thirst, temperature

3. cerebrum: center of thinking, awareness, perception

4. Describe how language is processed in the brain by listing the specific locations involved and what actions they perform while reading a pre-prepared speech.

1. signal to occipital lobe to see words

2. visual association areas where you actually recognize word/pattern

3. Wernicke’s area: understand what’s going on or comprehend meaning of words

4. arcuate fasciculus transports information to broca’s

5. Broca’s area: context associate emotion with word

6. premotor cortex: put everything together about the words, get muscles ready to perform the word

7. motor cortex: where you actually say the word

12. A. Name the six types of neuroglia and where they are most prominently found in the nervous system.

• astrocytes (CNS)

• ependymal cells (CNS)

• microglia (CNS)

• oligodendrocytes (CNS)

• Schwann cells (PNS) 

• satellite cells (PNS)

B. Name an associated function with each type of neuroglial cell named in part A.

• CNS

  • astrocytes - creates the blood brain barrier

  • ependymal cells - creates choroid plexus and secretes CSF

  • microglia - immune functions for brain

  • oligodendrocytes - form myelin sheath on multiple CNS axons

• PNS

  • Schwann cells - form myelin sheath around single axon

  • satellite cells - nurse cells that cleanup synapse in the PNS

C. Name two descending and two ascending pathways in the spinal cord. List one function associated with each pathway.

• Two descending (motor) pathways:

  • corticospinal: movements of the body

  • vestibulospinal: balance coordination

• Two ascending (sensory) pathways:

  • spinothalamic: pain and temperature information

  • spinocerebellar: carries proprioceptive information to the cerebellum
    

13. A. Name the four bone shapes.

1.short

2.irregular 

3.flat 

4.long

2. What is the protective tissue that lines the outer surface of all bones?  Describe it fully.

Periosteum, membrane that surrounds the bone is made from 2 layers. 

The cellular layer is composed of cells (osteoblast, osteoclast, and osteoprogenitor cells) and the outer layer is composed of dense irregular CT. 

3. What is the tissue that lines the medullary cavity and trabeculae of bone?  Describe it fully.

Endosteum- made up the cellular layer of osteoblast, osteoclast, and osteoprogenitor cells 

4. Describe endochondral ossification.

1. chondrocytes begin to expand 

2. lacunae expand and cartilage forms strips 

3. chondrocytes die (allow for blood to begin penetrating into that region) 

4. blood vessels penetrate and we begin to see Ca+

5. Chondroblasts are converted into precursor cells then formed into osteoblast. 

6. Spongy bone deposits 

7. Osteoclast appear and remodel 

8. Continues to convert to the epiphysis

14. A. Name the three components of the neuromuscular junction.

presynaptic nerve terminal

motor end plate

synaptic cleft

B. Describe the process of neurochemical transmission in the junction.

Generation of electrical signal (action potential) 

1. Voltage gated Ca+ channels open 

2. Vesicles filled with neurotransmitters dock at the neuron's membrane 

3. Exocytosis occurs as ACh enters the synaptic cleft. 

4. ACh docks at its receptors on the motor end plate. 

5. Action potential (AP) develops on the sarcolemma

C. Name 5 of the common neurotransmitters and state one major function for each type.

ACh-  at all muscular junctions (ADHD/ mostly excitatory NT/ sleep wake cycle) 

• serotonin- mood

• dopamine- reward circuitry

• GABA-  most common inhibitory transmitter (SLOW) 

• EP-Epinephrine/ NE Norepinephrine (strong cardiovascular effects) 

• Glutamate- major excitatory neurotransmitter (memory

15. A. Name the four lobes of the brain and two locations found in each lobe (other than listed in part B).

1. Prefrontal cortex: precentral gyrus

2. temporal: olfactory cortex, primary auditory cortex

3. parietal: postcentral gyrus, sensory association cortex

4. occipital: visual cortex, visual association areas

B. Name one result of a lesion in each of the following areas: medulla oblongata, reticular formation, hippocampus, cerebellum and prefrontal cortex.

• medulla: death

• reticular formation: lose consciousness aka coma

• hippocampus: amnesia

• cerebellum: ataxia

• prefrontal cortex: loss of personality

16. Name the following six cranial nerves, whether they are sensory, motor or both, what area of the face or head they are responsible for and what their primary function is.

17. A. Name each layer of the eyeball and list two structures in each layer of them.

tunica fibrosa (sclera and cornea)

tunica vasculosa (choroid and ciliary body iris) 

tunica interna (retina, fovea, optic disk) 

2. List the structures, in order, that light passes through to form an image in the occipital lobe.

1. cornea 

2. aqueous humor 

3. lens 

4. pupil 

5. vitreous humor 

6. retina 

7. optic nerve 

8. optic chiasm 

9. optic tract 

10. LGN of thalamus 

11. Back to occipital lobe 

3. List the five taste modalities.

1. Salty 

2. Sour 

3. Sweet 

4. Bitter 

5. Umami 

18. A. Name the major components of the ear.

• auricle

• auditory tube

• tympanic membrane

• incus

• malleus

• stapes

• oval window

• cochlea

• saccule

• utricle

• semicircular canals

B. Describe the processes involved in reception of sound.

1. Outer ear collects the sound and the tympanic membrane vibrates in response

2. Vibrations are conducted through the malleus, incus and stapes to the oval window of the cochlea

3. Pressure vibrations are conducted into the fluid of the cochlea

4. Vibrations cause the basilar membrane to flex

5. Hair cells (actually the cilia) project into gel like substance and bend 

6. High frequencies result in basal end flexing while lower frequencies cause distal end to bend

19. A. Name and briefly describe the four brain wave patterns detected by an EEG.

• alpha (daydreaming time- next highest) 

• beta (mentally active-highest frequency) 

• theta (very drowsy- (2nd & 3rd phases of sleep))

• delta (asleep 3rd and 4th phases of sleep and the slowest of frequency) 

2. Name the three layers of the meninges in sequence from the deepest to the most superficial.

• Pia Mater

• Arachnoid

• Dura Mater 

3. Name the tissue and cell type that produces CSF.

• ependymal cells and choroid plexus

4. Describe the flow of cerebrospinal fluid around the CNS.

• CSF is secreted by the choroid plexus in each lateral ventricle and flows into the 3rd ventricle where more is added. CSF continues through the cerebral aqueduct to the 4th ventricle where more is added. CSF flows throughout the subarachnoid spaces in the brain and spinal cord as well as the central canal. it is recollected at arachnoid villi and returned to the bloodstream through dural venous sinuses.