5.1 to 5.7 AP Human Geography Notes

5.1 - Intro to Agriculture

Let’s begin with the definition of agriculture (you know how it goes).

Term: Agriculture - The practice of planting and harvesting domesticated (trained to live or work or humans) plants and raising domesticated animals for food.

Term: Domesticated (oh wow I just gave the definition) - Grown or raised by humans, as opposed to wild.

BASICALLY, agriculture is just raising plants and animals on purpose for the sake of feeding people. 

The big question that sums up the entire unit is:

“How are agriculture practices influenced by the physical environment and climate conditions?”

Or the relationship between agriculture practices and the physical environment and climate conditions. 

People do not farm just where they want, because geographical location matters when it comes to agriculture. 

Some factors that influence the distribution of agriculture throughout the world (we’re getting into the term spam again!!!).

Physical and Climate are two basic factors that determine where agriculture takes place. 

Term: Physical Environment - Presence or absence of abundant and nutritious soil.  

This one should be relatively obvious, since no one grows plants in dead soil.

For example, Antarctica isn’t going to grow anything. However, the Great Plains has a lot of nutritious soil that can be used.

Term: Topography - The physical characteristics of the landforms. 

Even in places with good soil, physical features dictate the type of farming that can be done. 

For example, in places like Scotland or Ireland with many hills (wow so many hills), it is difficult to plant any crops, but it is very conductive (tending to produce; contributive; helpful; favorable) for allowing sheep to graze (yeah i'm confused too).

For example (opposite of the last example), the Great Plains’ (wide and flat region) topology allows planting of crops as far as the eye can see (wowie so many crops).

REMEMBER TEST

T - Type

E - Environment

S - Soil

T - Topography

(remember the TT goes together and the ES go together)

Term: Climate - Describes the general patterns of weather over a long period of time.

Do not mix up climate with weather. Climate is the patterns in the weather over a long period of time while weather is a day to day thing.

There are some regions that have good climates for agriculture, and some that do not have good climates (like Antarctica I know this continent is going to be used so much during this unit).

Now we have three main climate types throughout the world with a lot of subcategories, but we won’t cover that cuz this isn’t a science class.

(if you search up “climate zones” and go to images you’ll see a lot of visual examples which will probably help you more than all this talking)

Tropical climates tend to cluster in areas around 20 degrees North and South of the equator. That means it is pretty warm all year long and has lots of precipitation. This makes tropical climates really good for agriculture. Since the tropical climate is so good, a lot of agriculture happens in this place such as in Central America, South Asia, and central Africa along with several other places as well.

Tropical climates have an average year-round temperature of 80 degrees Fahrenheit (27 degrees Celsius).

Tropical climates can come in either tropical wet, or tropical wet and dry (doesn’t really make sense but whatever). 

Tropical wet climates have rain every day of the year, which supports tropical rain forests such as the Amazon Rainforest.

Tropical wet and dry climates have a dry season with little to no rain, usually in the winter. The tropical monsoon is a subtype of these climates.

Term: Monsoon - A seasonal reversal of winds with a general onshore movement in summer and a general offshore movement in winter; onshore winds bring monsoon rains.

Term: Monsoon Rains - Long periods of heavy rains every day at the end of a short dry season.

Other tropical wet and dry climates have a longer dry winter season where no rain falls for long periods of time.

Dry (arid) climates are dry. You don’t need an explanation. (ok you actually need one tho so read up)

Dry (arid) climates are not good for agriculture, with little precipitation and not favorable for agriculture. However, dry climates do have a little farming. 

There are some areas that are considered semi-arid climates that receive just enough precipitation to support agriculture. Still risky however, because these regions can experience droughts. 

Moderate climates are typically very friendly to agricultural practices. They have a year long average of 75 degrees, abundant rainfall and mild winters. They also hang out near the edges of tropical climates.

(One more climate type cuz we hate you)

Mediterranean climates are a sub-type of moderate climates which you HAVE to know (rip). These climates (the Mediterranean climate) are found along the Mediterranean Sea (no way!) and several coastal areas around the world. They receive winter precipitation, and mild winter temperatures along with clear, sunny skies.

BASICALLY, everything is good except dry and maybe semi-arid. Can you answer why?

(One more climate…)

Continental Climates have a large range of temperatures and moderate precipitation. They are found in the interior of continents, north of the moderate climate zones. These climates are found only in the northern hemisphere. The continental climatic region extends broadly across North America and Eurasia.

A major characteristic of continental climates is continentality (remoteness from ocean). Continental climates experience little maritime influence because although general atmospheric circulation is westerly, continental climates tend to be far from coastal areas and do not experience the warming or cooling influences of oceans.

(Take a deep breath)

There is one more thing we need to know about agriculture, and that is the soil. There are three important characteristics you need to know that determine whether it is suitable for agriculture or not.

A crumbly texture in the soil provides space for water and air to move through to the plant’s roots.

A rich base of organic materials, and

Diverse populations of microorganisms such as earthworms, ants, and bacteria that help decompose or break down the organic materials from the ground surface. 

The decomposition of organic matter is the principal soil-farming process that creates an upper layer of topsoil that has a depth of 2 to 8 inches below the ground level. The nutrients in this topsoil include nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium. These are absorbed through the plant roots. They are essential in allowing plants to survive, grow, and reproduce.

In more simplicity, all plants have certain requirements:

Space, plants need suitable room to grow or they will have to compete for resources with other plants

Light, plants need sufficient light to perform photosynthesis.

Water, plants need water to help absorb nutrients. 

Nutrients, plants need nutrients for nourishment.

Suitable temperature, plants need a temperature suitable for growth.

Now that we know why agriculture occurs where it occurs, we can look into two broad categories or types of agriculture. 

Term: Intensive Agriculture - Farmers or ranchers use a higher amount of inputs (money, labor, seeds, fertilizer, pesticides, etc.) in order to maximize yields (the amount of crop or agricultural product produced per unit of land).

inputs is referring to how much you put into it, so a        high input is a lot of things put into it*

BASICALLY, intensive agriculture is working your butt off to squeeze every little product off your crops that you can. 

The question is (that no one was asking) who is eating all this food that is being so intensively produced? Because this leads to two more types of agriculture to torture you (just kidding it’s actually pretty interesting)

WHO IS EATING ALL THIS FOOD

Commercial Agriculture is sold on the market for consumption by other people, whereas..

Subsistence (maintaining or supporting oneself at a minimum level) Farming is when the food is consumed by the farmer and family.

To continue (our torture), we will need to remember three more terms that are sub-topics of intensive agriculture. 

Term: Market Gardening (also truck farming) - Small scale farms focusing on fruits and vegetables.

Market gardening serves a specific market in close proximity (nearness in time, space, or distance) to the farms. It is a form of commercial agriculture because it invests heavily in greenhouses, fertilizes, and high quality seeds, etc. 

Term: Plantation Agriculture - Large scale farming of a single crop to sell on a market.

If it is going to be sold on the market, what type of farming is it going to be (hint: it’s either commercial or subsistence)? Plantation agriculture typically specializes in commodities (a raw material used to create products) like cotton, coffee, sugarcane, etc. and it is intensive because it requires a lot of human labor and seeds and pesticides. Plantation agriculture also happens in developing countries which is why it requires so much human labor because they don’t have the money to buy machines to do the work for them.

Term: Mixed Crop/Livestock Agriculture - Both crops and livestock are raised for sale on a market.

I wonder what type of agriculture this is, I’ll give you a hint it’s either commercial or subsistence. In this arrangement, most of the crops go to feed the livestock, and the livestock’s poop goes to fertilize the crops (wow such beautiful). This arrangement is considered intensive because it requires a lot of labor.

BASICALLY, intensive farming is intense and needs a lot of stuff. Commercial agriculture goes to markets, subsistence agriculture goes to the family. Market is small, the plantation is large in crops, and mixed livestock and crops.

Some examples of intensive farming practices (lol more terms) include:

Term: Monoculture - The practice of growing a single crop over a large area.

Monoculture can be efficient in terms of land use and labor, but it can also be risky, as the crops are vulnerable to pests and diseases that can spread easily in a monoculture system.

For example, plantation agriculture (if you still remember) is a type of monoculture farming. Can you answer why?

Term: Irrigation - The practice of artificially providing water to crops in order to supplement (add, increase) natural rainfall.

Irrigation can be used to support crop growth in areas with limited rainfall or during times of drought.

Chemical fertilizers are the substances applied to soil to provide plants with the nutrients they need to grow.

Chemical fertilizers can be used to improve soil fertility and increase crop yields, but they can also have negative impacts on the environment if not used carefully

Term: Pesticides - Chemicals used to control pests, such as insects, weeds, and fungi, that can damage crops.

Pesticides can be effective at controlling pests, but do have a negative impact on non-target species and the environment if not used responsibly.

Term: Factory Farming - The practice of confining large numbers of animals in small spaces and providing them with a highly controlled diet and environment.

Factory farming can be efficient in terms of producing meat, milk, and eggs, but it can also have negative impacts on animal welfare and the environment.

Moving on to the next broad type of agriculture, extensive agriculture, which is kind of the opposite of intensive agriculture.

Term: Extensive Agriculture - Farmers and ranchers use relatively few inputs, gain lower yields, and rely on natural soil fertility and climate conditions.

Just like intensive agriculture, extensive agriculture can also be commercial or subsistence agriculture (if you don’t know what those two are, scroll up).

In general, extensive agriculture occurs geographically in peripheral and semi-periphery countries because the wealth required for intensive practices is not available (intensive agriculture is then implied to be in wealthier countries, or core countries).

Once again, we love torturing you with three more subtypes of extensive agriculture that you will need to know.

Term: Shifting Cultivation - The cultivation (the act of caring for or raising plants/crops) of a plot of land until its resources are exhausted and then moving to another location (or shifting to another location haha heimler so funny).

The exhausted land is prepared for future use by slash-and-burn techniques which burn everything down and deposit ash on the ground which replenishes the nutrients of the soil, giving way for more planting in that area.

Term: Nomadic (anything that involves moving around a lot) Herding - The breeding of domesticated herd animals like cattle or sheep to drive across expansive (wide areas) pasturelands in different seasons.

This is classified as subsistence and is usually practiced in arid or semi-arid climates (dry or semi-dry climates) that are not suited well for planting crops.

Term: Ranching - The use of large tracts of land to raise animals to sell for meat, hides, or wool.

This is similar to nomadic herding, except instead of moving around, ranchers raise their animals on one plot of land. Once again, this is done in places where the climate is not suitable for farming.

For example, there are a lot of ranches in Western US, Southern Brazil, and in Uruguay along with many other places with similar topography and climate conditions.

In general (random fact), the importance of ranching has been declining in the last few decades, and one result is the conversion of ranches to feedlots (a confined area where animals are fed and then to the slaughter, maxing out profits and zero comfort).

Due to the increased demand for meat and the constant desire for increased profits, these farms are dedicated to getting their animals nice and plump before sending them to the slaughter.

To be clear however, ranching can both be extensive and intensive. It is intensive if they are trying to maximize the yield, and as such would look more like a factory. On the other hand, extensive ranching would look more like a farm or an open field for the animals.

Term: Pastoralism - Practice of raising livestock, often in a nomadic or semi-nomadic way. 

Pastoralists may move their animals from place to place in search of fresh pasture and water. They generally move in unpredictable ways.

Term: Extensive Animal Husbandry - A type of animal production that involves raising large numbers of animals on large areas of land, often with relatively low levels of inputs such as feed and veterinary care (this is literally just free-range farming).

Extensive animal husbandry systems are found in areas with abundant natural pasture or grassland.

BASICALLY (for this entire agriculture thing), 

Intensive - Modern methods   Extensive - Traditional Methods

Intensive - Small Areas                        Extensive - Big Areas

Intensive - High Inputs, High Yields     Extensive - Low Inputs, Low Yields

Intensive - Generally Commercial        Extensive - Generally Subsistence

Intensive - Small and Expensive          Extensive - Large and Inexpensive

Intensive - Located Near Markets        Extensive - Remotely Located

Up there, it’s quite a mess. So if you don’t know how to navigate the mess above, refer to this:

Factors of Distribution of Agriculture

Physical Environment

Topography

Climate:

Tropical

Dry (Arid)

Moderate

Mediterranean

Types of Agriculture

Intensive Agriculture Practices: Generally Commercial

Market Gardening (Truck Farming) (subsistence)

Plantation Agriculture

Mixed Crop/Livestock Agriculture

Monoculture (all market gardening)

Irrigation 

Chemical Fertilizers

Pesticides

Factory Farming

Extensive Agriculture: Generally Subsistence

Shifting Cultivation

Nomadic

Ranching
` Pastoralism

Extensive Animal Husbandry

5.2 - Survey Methods and Settlement Patterns

Remember our question?

“The big question that sums up the entire unit is:

How are agriculture practices influenced by the physical environment and climate conditions?”

Let’s rephrase it to be:

What is the relationship between agricultural practices, rural settlement patterns, and survey methods?

This topic will answer this question.

Remember in the last topic how we talked about different types of climates and geographical features and how that dictates what type of agriculture happens?

For example, in the Philippines, it is in a tropical climate. If you still remember, tropical climates are good for growing crops. The Philippines is a hilly place which means that they aren’t growing massive fields of corn there, but they can grow rice there. 

(If you want to know why the Philippines grow rice than corn, and not just remember that fact through memorization, here is the explanation:

Hilly areas have more water runoff, and rice can thrive in flooded conditions. However, corn is more susceptible to water damage, so it grows better in flat places with no water runoff.)

Term: Terracing - An agriculture technique that involves creating flat levels on slopes to cultivate (prepare and use land for crops or gardening) crops.

So, the environment plays a big role in the agricultural possibilities of a given piece of land. However, once the kind of agriculture is determined, the way farmers and ranchers do their work affects what is called the:

Term: Agricultural Landscape - The management and utilization of land for farming and cultivation purposes.

For example, the environment may allow rice to grow somewhere, but not corn. The farmer may look at the landscape or terrain, and cut terraces into the terrain. The decision to cultivate rice in the Philippines means that farmers will shape the agricultural landscape in ways that are unique to that kind of cultivation. 

One more factor that makes up an agricultural landscape is the people that live there (getting into culture maybe). Cows don’t milk themselves, and corn doesn’t plant themselves, so farmers and ranchers are a big part of what makes up an agricultural landscape. The soon to learn rural settlement patterns which we will learn soon will explain this better.

Term: Land-Use Pattern - The way land is utilized and organized in a specific area, indicating how various activities, such as residential, commercial, agricultural, and industrial uses, are distributed across the landscape.

Understanding these patterns is essential for urban planning and environmental management, as they influence transportation, infrastructure development, and the overall quality of life within a community.

Land-use patterns can influence the availability of housing, employment opportunities, and access to amenities such as parks and schools. They can also affect the health of the natural environment by determining the extent to which land is developed or preserved, and by shaping the way in which natural resources are used.

There are many factors that can affect land-use patterns, let’s take a look at some.

Term: Market Demand - The total quantity of a product or service that consumers are willing and able to purchase at various prices within a given time frame.

The demand for certain goods or services can drive the use of certain types of land. An increase in demand for housing may lead to an increase in the development of residential areas.

Term: Natural Resources - Materials and components that can be found within the environment, which are utilized by humans for various purposes, including economic activities and sustenance.

The availability of natural resources such as water, fertile soil, and timber can affect the use of land. Areas with abundant water may be more suitable for agriculture.

Transportation’s availability and cost can influence land-use patterns by determining the feasibility of using land for certain purposes. Land that is far from transportation infrastructure may be less attractive for development (time-space decay hmmmm)

Government policies can influence land-use patterns through policies such as zoning regulations, tax incentives, and infrastructure development.

Environmental factors such as climate, topography, and the presence of natural hazards, can affect the use of land. Land that is more prone to flooding may be less suitable for development.

Now that we know what can affect land-use patterns, let’s take a look at rural settlement patterns.

Rural settlement patterns refer to the way in which people live and build communities in rural areas, or areas outside of urban centers. Rural settlement patterns can vary significantly from one region to another, depending on a variety of factors, which are listed above.

Let’s now take a look at the three rural settlement patterns.

(quick definition)

Term: Rural - Places outside the bounds of cities.

Term: Clustered (or nucleated) Settlement (also known as farm villages) - A type of settlement where homes are located near each other (clustered ) and create a central farm village that provides shared services.

Additionally, clustered settlements provide safety to their residents as well as a strong sense of place (is this a centripetal or centrifugal force?)

These tightly bunched settlements have anywhere from a few dozen to several hundred inhabitants. The farm village includes the farmstead, or the center of the farm operations, which includes the farmhouse, barns, sheds, livestock pens, and the family garden.

The fields, pastures, and meadows lie out in the country beyond the limits of the village and farmers must journey out of the village each day to work the land.

This is the most common settlement pattern and is usually found in Europe, Latin America and agricultural regions of Asia, regions of Africa in the Middle East which are home to sedentary farmers.

Term: Sedentary - a population that lives in a fixed location, essentially staying in one place, as opposed to a nomadic lifestyle where people move around frequently.

Clustered settlements develop through a number of factors. They may emerge around an abundance of natural resources in an area, such as water sources or fertile land, or around economic opportunities like transportation corridors or natural resource extraction. They may also develop around social and cultural amenities, such as schools, churches, and community centers.

Clustered settlement patterns have more efficient use of resources and infrastructure, and more socializing and cohesion. However, they bring the potential of overcrowding and environmental impacts.

Historically, the countryside was unsafe, threatened by bands of outlaws and raiders. Farmers could better defend themselves by grouping together in villages, and so the population of these villages went up during periods of insecurity, and went down when it was more peaceful.

BASICALLY, clustered settlements have a high population density and more concentrated grouping of structures.

Term: Dispersed (Isolated) Settlement (i wonder what this means) - A type of settlement where homes are distant from one another.

In this type of settlement, people don’t interact with each other very often at all, because of their distance, such as farmers living in their own farmers.

The reason this type of settlement would be found in a region is because there is a basic assumption of safety and abundant water and resources that enable people to spread out. There was also peace and security in the countryside, which eliminates the need for defense. 

The land was usually also colonized by individual pioneer families rather than by socially cohesive groups, and well drained land where water was readily available.

Another variety of factors contribute to the development of dispersed settlement patterns, such as places with low population densities, or a place where natural resources or economic opportunities are dispersed over a large area.

There are dispersed settlements in a variety of settings, including agricultural areas, resource-based economies, and tourist destinations.

Dispersed settlements can also emerge as a result of cultural or social factors such as desire for privacy or a tradition of individual land ownership.

Dispersed settlements bring a sense of independence and privacy, and allows people to take advantage of natural resources and economic opportunities over a large area. However, it brings the need of providing infrastructure and services across a large, dispersed area, as well as the risk of isolation and lack of social cohesion.

BASICALLY, dispersed settlements have a low population density and scattered distribution of homes and other structures.

Term: Linear Settlements - A type of settlement where buildings are arranged in a line, often following a road or a river.

Linear settlements can be found in a variety of settings, including agricultural areas, resource-based economies, and tourist destinations. 

In this type of settlement, everyone has access to what they need to water their crops and transport them to market, however it may take longer to receive services depending where you live.

For example, if you lived on one side of a river, and the market with the thing you want is on the other side of the river, it would be a pain to get the item you need.

This pattern is limited to areas where legal systems dictate that property lines must be rectangular.

A type of linear settlement pattern (which will instantly give you the visualization, search up “long-lot pattern”) is the long-lot pattern, in which each farmstead is situated at one end of a long narrow rectangular lot, most likely closest to the road or river for ease in getting produce to market.

(take a little break here, we’re gonna move on to survey methods after this)

(also, just saying that it is much easier to search up visualizations of these survey methods, but still read the text)

Term: Survey Methods (cadastral survey) - The various means by which the boundaries of property ownership are legally established.

Survey methods can explain to a large degree of what rural settlement is present. There are regional differences between different survey methods that result in specific patterns.

Survey methods in a way can also show who were the previous occupants (decolonization) of a land.

For example, if you fly over the US, you might see weirdly shaped settlement patterns in the East coast. Keep moving over to the West however, the settlements start to look more uniform like a grid. If you go to the rivers, you may see long-lots (if you haven’t searched it up, please search up “long-lot pattern”) and linear settlement along the river. 

(the example is basically you on an airplane observing these different rural survey methods)

Survey methods shape settlement patterns and the landscape itself.

Term: Metes and Bounds - A type of survey method which establishes property boundaries according to natural features of the landscape.

Do you remember physical boundaries? Physical boundaries follow geographical features, like rivers. This is basically that, but with homes and property.

Metes = a specific, measured boundary
Bounds = a general boundary (waterways, walls, existing buildings, etc.)

This survey system uses natural features such as trees, boulders, and streams to delineate (describe or portray) property boundaries. As a result, farms surveyed (observed) under the metes and bounds system are much less regular in outline than those in which rectangular surveying (gridline) was used.

For example, British settlers who were all about territory during the colonial age moved to the US in the Northeast. Since the British people settled in a clustered style, metes and bounds were the easiest way to split territory between people.

However, landmarks can decay and change, and the borders aren’t even that properly defined, and also not all compass needles are made the same. 

Term: Township and Range - A land survey system which divides land into square plots of equal size, without consideration of natural features of the landscape.

The ranges are broken further into smaller parcels for people to develop.

For example, the US during their manifest destiny had a lot of “uninhabited” land and the government wanted to move people out to this territory in the West, and so Thomas Jefferson gave out squares of land as a result of the Land Ordinance of 1875.

The land was divided into six-mile square blocks (townships) and divided again into one-mile square blocks (range).

Township = division of a country with some corporate powers
Range = a set of different things of the same type

Term: Long-Lot - A land survey system which divides land into long rectangular lots with one small side along a vital resource.

The land is divided into narrow lots perpendicular to a river, road, or canal. These lots stretch from buildings or houses to the river, road, etc.

It gives everyone equal access to the “resource” (river, road, or what the lot connects to).

For example, a river that farmers need for irrigation and transportation can be shared by everyone using the long-lots method. However, with township and range or metes and bounds, it goes from everyone’s to a few people’s river. It benefits people and allows for more farming to happen.

For example, the French also colonized land in the US (no way!) and when they colonized Louisiana, they also split the land according to how they did it back home (long-lots). Can you guess how the territory was made in Quebec? (the french also colonized quebec)

5.3 - Agricultural Origins and Diffusions

This topic focuses on how agriculture happened, the lore, the backstory, and how it spread. This topic also focuses on how and where domestication happened.  (ok this topic is basically a history lesson from like 10 other places, don’t blame yourself if you don’t understand the first time cause I didn’t)

This topic will also focus on how plants and animals move from their place of origin? For example, the potato was domesticated in the Andes (South American mountains) but made its way to Ireland.

Agriculture began with domestication, and here’s the definition of it.

Term: Domestication - The long-term process through which humans selectively breed, protect, and care for individuals taken from populations of wild plant and animal species to create genetically distinct species, known as domesticates.

Remember that domestication is a process of trial and error, and not just a singular event that happened. Gradually, they established more reliable food sources. The advances made over thousands of years by prehistoric people eventually led to the domestication of plants and animals and the cultivation of seed crops called the First Agricultural Revolution.

Now to go any further into this topic, we also need to know very well what the agricultural revolution is.

Term: Agricultural Revolution - The transition from hunting and gathering societies to sedentary (unmoving) agricultural societies around 10,000 BCE.

To break this definition down into easier parts because AP HUG loves you:

Hunting and Gathering - Think Level 1 on the DTM (Demographic Transition Model)
Back then, most of Earth’s population was made up of small bands of people mainly tied together by kinship ties. Most were migratory (migrants, moved around a lot) and got food by gathering fruits and berries from plants or hunting animals.

At some point in time however, somebody discovered something revolutionary, which allowed people to not have to move from place to place to find food. Instead, you can stay in one place and grow your own food and crops, which is what we call agriculture.

You can also bring wild animals and start using them for work or to eat them, and so the planting of seeds and the taming of animals sends us back to the concept of domestication.

BASICALLY, the First Agricultural Revolution occurred when humans didn’t chase for their food but rather made it themselves using agriculture.

The reason why we cover the revolution is because without it, we’d basically be delayed so much. This revolution is arguably the most important moment in history, and it allowed for civilizations, legal codes, and writing systems, all we may not have had if it wasn’t for this revolution.

Remember once again that this revolution made it so that people didn’t have to move around to find food, but rather they could stay in one place and be perfectly fine as long as they tended to the crops and animals. IF they kept moving around and agriculture was never found, civilizations couldn’t be built because they would have to move someday for more food.

You may be asking how they domesticated these plants and animals (actually some of you may be thinking of that), and here’s how.

For plants, they first had to understand that a certain plant was useful to them. For example, teosinte, a plant native to Mexico is a large wild grass that, prior to domestication, produced small ears of corn less than one inch long.

Maize was a favored food among early groups in Mesoamerica, and its favored status led to its protection and eventually to seed selection.

As humans moved into permanent villages, the final step was to deliberately plant seeds of the teosinte, and over time it turned into the corn we eat today.

For animals, they are dependent on people for food and shelter, and so the best theory for animal domestication suggested mutually beneficial interactions in which animal species actively wanted contact with humans, rather than a process driven solely by humans (its basically mutual respect for each other).

Since AP HUG changes its mind and now hates you, you must remember the four (and more) places that were the origin of this revolution, or hearths.

(ok so before we begin, these are quite some detailed explanations. Use these explanations if you want to dive deep into the topic. for the regions that have super long explanations, there will be a BASICALLY summarization in my own words at the last paragraph before the next region for those last-minute studiers and you’re welcome :D <3)

Before we dive into the hearth locations, know that these hearths had various kinds of domestication practiced. These locations are the locations where people figured out how to farm and feed themselves, without contacting each other. Point is, all these places developed agricultural practices independently. This is amazing and has to be stated because farming isn’t an obvious way to feed people, yet all these places managed to figure out how to farm and abandoned their traditional ways for it.

Also one more thing (I am so sorry, but I promise I’m trying to make it easy), you might want to just search up these hearths and look at a map, cause many of these locations where agricultural practices happened are more or less, iconic.

Southwest Asia is understood to be an early center of plant domestication that occurred around 10,000 years ago. Animal domestication also occurred in Southwest Asia. Some people say that it may have been the hearth for the domestication of the largest number of animals that remain important for agriculture.

This place domesticated plants like sugarcane, root vegetables, and animals like pigs.

The Fertile Crescent (or Mesopotamia) includes the valleys of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. Both rivers flow out of the Zagros mountains through present-day Iran and into the Persian Gulf. The Fertile Crescent is the origin of the great cereal grains such as wheat and barley that enabled early people to build the civilization of Mesopotamia. In addition, the Fertile Crescent is home to the first domesticated grapes, apples, and olives, also important to modern agriculture.

The early farmers of the Fertile Crescent were part of the first major animal domestications, most notably of herd animals, perhaps 8000 years ago. The wild ancestors of major herd animals, such as cattle, sheep, and goats, those animals lived in semiarid regions primarily in a belt running from Syria and southeastern Turkey eastward across Iraq and Iran and into South Asia (confusing sentence, I know).

The Fertile Crescent is one of at least three hearth regions (goodness me “fertile” really lives up to its name, thanks AP HUG :DDDDDD) for the domestication (i hope at this point you remember what “domestication” means) of cattle. Genetic analysis reveals that farmers migrating out of the Fertile Crescent brought domesticated cattle with them and it spread the innovation far and wide in highly complex patterns of diffusion.

This place has more details because it is oh so important. The Fertile Region was home to some of the world’s first great civilizations and invented some of the world’s first systems of writing, government, and trade, and made important contributions to art, science, and literature.

BASICALLY, this location is the original hearth of agriculture due to its fertile soil between the Tigris and Euphrates river. They figured out how to plant wheat and barley, and domesticated animals like cattle and sheep.

The Indus River Valley was another early center of domestication for plants and animals. The Indus River flows from the highlands of Tibet and continues along the border between present-day Pakistan and India into the Arabian Sea. The early farmers of the Indus Valley domesticated a form of dry rice as well as strains of wheat.

The Indus River is also one of the three hearth regions for the domestication of cattle. Like the early farmers of the Fertile Crescent, farmers from the indus Valley brought domesticated cattle into other areas as they migrated. Most importantly, perhaps, farmers in the Indus Valley may have been the first to combine domesticated plants and animals in an integrated (united, unified) system, the antecedent (predecessor, preceding, previous, opposite of descendent probably) of mixed crop/livestock farming.

The Indus River also began using oxen to pull plow, a revolutionary invention that greatly increased both the acreage (the area of land typically under agriculture) under cultivation and food supplies.

BASICALLY, this location was home to a lot of water and fertile soil, so they figured out how to domesticate plants like wheat, barley, peas, and then animals like cattle, camels, and buffalo.

China, South and Southeast Asia, and Malaysia independently domesticated food crops and herd animals. Farmers in China domesticated rice, soybeans, and sugarcane. Bananas and taro were domesticated in New Guinea. Carl Sauer (some random guy who makes theories about this “hearth” stuff) has suggested that root crops may have first been domesticated more than 14,000 years ago in Southeast and South Asia, before the domestication of seed plants in the Fertile Crescent (they say this so you go like “wow this place is important because it discovered this agriculture thing faster than the fertile crescent”). Recall that food crops, such as potatoes, grow underground. After harvesting them, farmers renew the crop by plating the roots or cuttings from the plants.

Animal domestication also took place in these areas. For example, water buffalo were domesticated and used to plow rice fields in Southeast Asia, and this method is still commonly used by peasant rice farmers in the area.

East and West Africa gave us peanuts, yams, and coffee as well as different strands of barley, wheat, and rice. Sorghum (a type of plant in Africa) was domesticated in central Africa around 8000 years ago, and there is also evidence that millet was domesticated in sub Saharan Africa.

Africa is evidentially (not scientifically) the third hearth region of cattle domestication some 10,000 years ago, and that this African stock mixed with the stock later brought from the Indus River Valley.

Mesoamerica (or Central America) is a cultural region in the Americas that includes the diverse civilizations spread throughout the geographic area of modern-day countries of Mexico, Guatemala, Honduras, Belize, El Salvador, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica (just use a map at this point). 

Native Americans in Mesoamerica created an important center of domestication for maize (corn), tomatoes, beans, and squash, most importantly the corn, being as important as wheat in the Fertile Crescent or rice in the Indus River Valley. 

Now, PERU (in the Andes Mountains), you must remember that potatoes came from PERU. That’s just it.

Its domestication not only supported early civilizations in Mesoamerica but also civilizations throughout the Americas as the maize plant diffused (familiar word, eh?) into North America and South America. This was centuries before the European explorations.

The early history of Central America is complex, as the region has been inhabited (occupied, lived on) by many different cultures over the centuries. The earliest known human settlements there date back to the Pre-Columbian (before Christopher Colompass) era, when various indigenous peoples lived in the region. 

Sauer hypothesized that domestication of root crops similar to those domesticated in South and Southeast Asia may have taken place in northwestern South America, but at a later date. 

South America also had animals and domesticated the llama, alpaca, guinea pig, and Muscovy duck.

(you’re finally done, take a breather before we finish up our final part. oh you can’t breathe? lemme help you.

breathe in for 5 seconds, hold it for 5 seconds, breathe out for 5 seconds, repeat)

The domestication of plants and animals is only the final part of the story of agriculture. The important second part is the diffusion of the plants and animals from their hearths of domestication.

If you remember what diffusion is, this should be a piece of cake. However if you don’t, here’s the definition.

Term: Diffusion - The process by which a cultural trait, idea, or phenomenon spreads from one place to another.

For thousands of years, domesticated plants and animals spread primarily through expansion diffusion (imagine a balloon blowing up). The process of domestication and the results of the process moved beyond the hearths, spreading steadily outwards as traders traveled between villages and, later, throughout Eurasia and Africa.

There are many ways that newly domesticated plants and animals reached other parts of the globe, but the best one to know is the Columbian Exchange and the agricultural revolutions.

(side note that there are more than one agricultural revolutions, but that’s for another day. just more proof that AP HUG hates you :( so sad)

Term: Columbian Exchange - The interaction and widespread transfer of plants, animals, culture, human populations, technology, disease, and ideas between the Americas, West Africa, and the Old World in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries (I URGE YOU to REMEMBER where the FLIPPITY this exchange happened, cause it’s SUPER IMPORTANT)

(obviously this exchange is named after mister charizmapher cobumpkins)

A variety of plants, animals, diseases, and technologies were exchanged between the Americas and the Eastern hemisphere. People became familiar with new plants and animals as the exchange continued.

The European powers were going all over the place with their imperial exploration and were sailing all over the place trying to trade and assert power. Some decided to go west to get to Asian trade markets, but they just, they JUST ran into two other continents they previously had not known about, only two. 

If you pull up a map of the Columbian Exchange right now (go do it I beg you with all of everything I have), you may notice the global scale of diffusion began with European exploration and colonialism. 

For plants, maize and potatoes from North America went to Eurasia and Africa. Wheat and grapes from Europe went to the Americas, and West African rice also went to the Americas (sharing is caring !!! )

For animals, chickens, cows, sheep, pigs, and horses went from Europe to the Americas, while turkeys (contributed to the thanksgiving turkey tradition origin) went from the Americas to Europe. 

Explorers carried agricultural products and practices (farmers and agricultural landscape hmmmmmm) across the oceans, spreading them through the process of relocation diffusion.

Do you remember what relocation diffusion is? Here’s the definition just in case.

Term: Relocation Diffusion - When individuals or groups with a particular idea or practice migrate from one location to another, thereby bringing the idea or practice to their new homeland.

Agricultural products were not the only diffusions, as diseases also diffused (scared), primarily from Europe and Africa to the Americas, where they had a devastating effect on native populations (rip). Influenza and smallpox were particularly devastating. 

Influenza probably diffused through Hispaniola (present-day Haifa and the Dominican Republic, remember this from Unit 4? No? Yes? Maybe so?) during Columbus’ voyage in 1493 and the introduction of European pigs carrying swine fever.

In Central Mexico, Hernán Cortés’ contact with the Aztec in the first decades of the sixteenth century led to a DEVASTATING outbreak of smallpox. The impact of these and other diseases on the native populations in the Americas led to depopulation referred to as “demographic collapse”, the phenomenon of near-genocide (mass killings) of native population.

Diffusion of crops, animals, and agricultural innovation still continues today. A recent example would be Spanish missionaries bringing olive, grape, and date palms to present-day California in the eighteenth century. This was part of a larger process of multidirectional diffusion. 

Eastern Hemisphere crops were introduced to the Americas, Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa through mass emigrations from Europe over the past 500 years. And crops of the Americas diffused in the opposite direction.

For example, Portuguese people brought chili peppers and maize (corn) to their colonies in South Asia. These foods became staples (bases, basics) of diets across the region (you see how food comes from Americas now instead of food being brought to big back land? it’s kind of like sharing..)

Agricultural diffusion focuses on a lot of things, and not just the crops. It includes an examination of the cultures and indigenous (a distinct cultural group in a place) technical knowledge systems in which they are imbedded (plant, set, implant).

For example, the diffusion of African rice, which was domesticated independently in the inland delta area of West Africa’s Niger River, shows the importance of indigenous knowledge. European planters and slave owners carried more than seeds across the Atlantic from Africa to cultivate in the Americas. The Africans taken into slavery, particularly women from the Gambia River region, had the knowledge and skill to cultivate (plow, dig) rice. Slave owners actively sought (wanted and went for) slaves from specific ethnic groups and geographical locations in the West African rice-productions zone, suggesting they knew about and needed Africans’ skills and knowledge.

BASICALLY, people wanted rice and apparently a specific group of people in Africa was the way to go. It shows that the African rice gave people more ideas about the people in Africa who made the rice.

Sometimes, accepting a new crop has unintended consequences (usually bad reactions).

For example, potatoes that Spanish and Portuguese explorers brought to Europe were diffused to England and on to Ireland. Potatoes became a staple of the diet there, but the overreliance on potatoes led to the worst crises in modern history. That is because a disease spread among the little potatoes, which ruined the potatoes and made millions of people starve and leave.

For example, wheat from the Middle East went to Europe where it flourished (prospered, thrived, grown) for centuries and diffused to the New World by Spanish colonists. Globalization (the process by which organizations develop international influence or start operating on an international scale) drives diffusions even today, extending the process begun by prehistoric people and continuing through the Columbian Exchange to the present. 

This topic is a hard one to study, and I think it deserves a little summary list for why not.

(scroll to next page, you’ll see this type of thing a lot cause of the topics in this unit, they’re hilarious)

Bold means important*

Southwest Asia

Barley, wheat, lentil (bean-like), olives

The Fertile Crescent (or Mesopotamia) - Domesticated Cattle

Produced: Grain, wheat, barley, grapes, apples, olives

Indus River Valley - Cattle Hearth

Produced: Dry rice, wheat, barley, peas, beans, cotton , mustard, 

China:

Produced: Rice, soybeans, sugarcane, root crops (like potatoes), millet

South and Southeast Asia - Domesticated Cattle

Produced: Coconuts, mangos

East Asia:

Produced: Rice, soybeans

Nile River Valley - Domesticated Cattle

Produced: Beans

Sub-Saharan Africa:

Produced: Yams, coffee, sorghum, millet

Mesoamerica (or Central/Latin America):

Produced: Maize (corn, very important remember this), potatoes, squash, peppers

Mexico:

Produced: Squash, potatoes, cocoa, maize (corn), Beans, cotton

Peru:

Produced: Potatoes

(this is honestly just a list. If you want more detail and memorize it better, then go to Unit 5 Climate Activity.pdf)

5.4 - The Second Agricultural Revolution

The First Agricultural Revolution can be read in the previous topic.

Since we have established that AP HUG hates you, there’s a second agricultural revolution (this is just history ).

Term: Second Agricultural Revolution - A development in agriculture lasting from the 17th to the 20th century* in which mechanical technology increased crop yields, made harvesting more efficient, and led to a significant growth in population. 

*ok so there is actually a bunch of different dates from many of the sources but it was probably roughly around 1650 to 1900, but many different sources say different things. here’s a handful of them!! take your pick.

Heimler’s History: 17th to 20th Century

Fiveable: 17th to 19th Century (it also says 16th to early 19th century???)

AP Textbook: 1600s to 1930s

https://www.vaia.com/en-us/explanations/human-geography/agricultural-geography/second-agricultural-revolution: 1650 to 1900

https://populationeducation.org/a-timeline-of-the-three-major-agricultural-revolutions-in-history: 1500 to 1850

https://study.com/learn/lesson/agicultural-revolution.html: 1500 to 1800

It was a major turning point in agriculture like the first, and had major advancements and significant impacts on the agricultural techniques before the revolution.

(Here’s a bit of lore)

The Agricultural Revolution first took place in the southeast of England, particularly in the counties of Kent and Sussex (lol). The region had a number of advantages that made it well-suited to the development of commercial agriculture, including fertile soil (wow), a mild climate (wow), and proximity to major markets (wow) in London and other urban centers.

(I hope you remember what commercial agriculture means. If you don’t, I really can’t help you. Actually, I can help you, just go to Topic 5.1)

The Agricultural Revolution spread to other parts of England and Wales over time, as new technologies and techniques were developed and adopted by farmers. However, it took longer to reach other parts of the country that had poorer soil and harsher climates, like the north and west. The Agricultural Revolution also had significant impacts on Scotland and Ireland, but those countries went through their own agricultural revolutions distinct from the one in England.

(back to your daily scheduled program)

The Agricultural Revolution was a period of rapid agricultural development in Britain. It was characterized by a number of changes and innovations that transformed the way food was produced and consumed. 

The Agricultural Revolution also led to significant changes in the way food was processed and consumed. For example, the development of new food preservation techniques, like canning and refrigeration, made it possible to transport and store food over longer distances. The growth of urban centers led to the development of a more diverse and sophisticated food culture.

There are two main causes that led to the Second Agricultural Revolution, mainly technology and transportation.

The main goal of the second agricultural revolution was to increase food production and improve the efficiency of farming (which did happen, yippie). This was driven by a number of factors, including:

A growing population, creating the need for more food (remember, more people = more food, I think it also works backwards)

As more people moved to cities (urbanization), there was an increasing demand for food from urban markets. 

Industrialization from the Industrial Revolution created a need for more food to feed the growing number of factory workers.

Trading was very important to Britain, and agricultural exports were a very important part of this trade. To achieve these goals, you obviously just start an Agricultural Revolution.

Overall, the Agricultural Revolution had a major impact on the way food was produced and consumed in Britain, and it laid the foundations for modern agriculture as we know it today.

(I just want to make it clear that the Second Agricultural Revolution happened in Britain, and is also referred to as the British Agricultural Revolution.)

Some key advancements that transformed the way farming was conducted in Britain was:

Term: Enclosure Movement - A process where traditional common lands were enclosed and consolidated into larger, privately-owned farms.

This movement allowed for more efficient farming practices and increased production.

Term: Selective Breeding - A process of choosing specific plants or animals with desirable traits to reproduce, aiming to enhance those traits in future generations.

Farmers began to selectively breed animals in order to produce offspring with desired traits. This resulted in the development of new breeds of animals that were more productive and efficient.

New Crops were introduced from this revolution, such as turnips and clover. This allowed farmers to rotate their crops and improve the fertility of their soil.

Improved Tools and Machinery were made too, and guess what? Surprise surprise, AP HUG hates you and wants you to remember every single tool, what a sad day for all AP HUG students, but let’s introduce you to the technology.

Technology was developed in the late 1600s that led to the mechanization (the introduction of machines or automatic devices into a process) of farming.

Note that the First Agricultural Revolution was 12,000 years before the Second, and people had been farming the same way by hand. Technology was a big deal because of how it could make agriculture easier, which it did.

Some machines that you need to know because it is a true statement that AP HUG hates you are:

The Seed Drill made by Jethro Tull in 1701, which planted seeds at the proper depth, which means every seed had the best chance of growth as opposed to casting seeds all over the place. This allowed fewer seeds to be wasted, and made the difference between plants and weeds obvious because of the straight row pattern it had.

The Mechanical Reaper mechanized the reaping (harvest, garner) of grain. Harvesting could be done in a fraction of the time. This was considered probably the greatest innovation for farmers in the nineteenth century. Before, they used a scythe, but now the mechanical reaper not only cuts grain, but also bundles it, which increased efficiency and productivity ten-fold.

This invention was patented by Cyrus McCormick in 1931. At the time, farmers were limited to how much grain they could harvest in a season. Harvesting involved cutting grain with a scythe as said before. Once the grain was cut, it was gathered by hand, bundled, and then tied into bales. This process involved many laborers and a good amount of time to harvest a field of grain. 

McCormick’s mechanical reaper was pulled by horses, and it both cut and bundled the grain. The mechanical reaper was reported to increase a farmer’s grain yields by at least 10 times (ten-fold, aha).

The Steel Plow by John Deere was the precursor to modern combines (search up, “combines farming”) which basically do it all from reaping to threshing (separate grains from a plant).

Before using the seed drill, farmers used plows to break up the soil or turn the soil over so that the fresh soil with nutrients could be prepared for the seeds or plants.

Ancient farmers invented the hand plow about 5000 years ago. It was made of wood, and domesticated oxen pulled it over the land to break up and turn over the soil.

The first plow to use iron parts was patented (a granted exclusive right for an invention) in England in 1720. While it was an improvement over wooden plows, it was often difficult to use in rocky soils.

The first cast iron plow was patented in 1797 in New Jersey, and was the first major improvement in agricultural technology in 2000 years. It had little commercial success however because the plow broke easily and farmers thought (incorrectly) that the iron would poison the soil.

This idea would be developed, but it wasn’t until our man John Deere in Moline, Illinois, incorporated steel into a plow’s design. Steel is lighter and stronger than heavy and brittle cast iron, and Deere’s plow became a commercial success. 

The Tractor (no description lol)

As animal power was critical for the success of farmers up through the mid-twentieth century, tractors were critical to the success of farmers today.

The earliest tractors were developed in the mid-nineteenth century which were steam-powered, heavy, and difficult to transport. Until the invention of the internal combustible engine in the late-nineteenth century, most farmers used horses to pull the plow, seed drill, reaper, and other farm machines.

However, the gasoline-powered internal combustible engine, a relatively small, lightweight source of power, led to rapid advancements in tractors.

All of these new technologies contributed to more efficient production in the fields and therefore more rural-to-urban migration in the form of out-of-work farmers looking for jobs.

There are plenty of other technologies that revolutionized farming during this period too, and they all had the same effect of more efficient planting, higher crop yields, and thus more available food (but you don’t need to remember these other technologies cuz AP HUG is a villain, not a monster)

Transportation was equally as important too. If you harvest all the food, but have no way to get it to people… that’s a big problem. Luckily, there were two major advancements in transportation that made sure food was delivered quicker.

The expansion of railroads and shipping canals allowed the US to become a major exporter of surplus wheat and corn. This surplus supplied much-needed food to people in Europe during times of scarcity. In addition, the invention of and improvements in refrigeration that began with the refrigerated train car in 1867 and came into general use in 1881 allowed U.S. farmers to ship perishable food, such as meat, over greater distances, reaching more people in urban areas.

The Railroad expanded rapidly in industrializing states during this period. Not only could farmers transport crops to be sold to distant markets using the railroads, but they could also receive the farm tools too.

It made transporting produce and grain crops much cheaper and more accessible. In addition, railroads allowed farmers to haul (drag, pull, tug) equipment and livestock, primarily cattle, to their farms. 

The railroad also benefited ranchers, who were able to shorten cattle drives to market by driving the cattle to a railhead town. There, cattle were loaded into cattle cars for shipment to slaughterhouses in Chicago and other cities.

Canals allowed shopping by boat and increased the efficiency of shipping goods. A canal is a waterway that is made by humans, and unfortunately rivers don’t always allow the most efficient route between farmers and the markets, so canals increase the speed and efficiency of shipping products. 

For example, shipping canals such as the Erie Canal ran from the Hudson River at Albany, New York, to the Eastern shores of Lake Erie in Buffalo, New York. It provided access to New York City by way of the Hudson River. It used to take weeks to reach the rich resources and fertile lands for farming of the Northwest territory. The Appalachian Mountains were “in the way” and formed a barrier to the western lands (womp womp). However, the opening of the Erie Canal in 1825 allowed farmers to transport non perishable products (foods that can be stored at room temperature and remain safe to eat for a long time) such as cereal grains, at one-tenth the overland cost (transportation costs) and in less than half the previous time.

Agrichemicals - A chemical compound obtained from petroleum and natural gas for use in agriculture. 

One type of agrichemical is the synthetic fertilizer, a general term for industrially manufactured nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium. These mechanical innovations and agrichemical advancements led to the ability to provide food for the growing urban populations.

The Second Agricultural Revolution had very massive effects and impacts, just like the First.

(ok these are generally positive or neutral effects of the revolution)

Better Diets for People in Industrial States was one of these effects. Remember that the Columbian Exchange diffused new kinds of foods, and with these foods along with the new technology, it allowed for more and more people to have more nutritious foods.

Crops such as maize, potatoes, and cassava, diffused across the globe during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, and were successful and productive in Europe, and parts of Asia. providing important nutrients that helped prevent malnutrition. The result of a better diet was a widespread increase in population throughout the eighteenth century.

The increased rural populations in Europe and North America resulted in many rural people migrating to urban areas to find work in the newly established factories of the Industrial Revolution.

Longer Life Expectancy is another effect. Remember the DTM (demographic transition model) with its Stage 1-5 things? The developments basically put us to a point where people were making babies, and less people were dying. 

REMEMBER (most of the time), More Food = More People

Better diets led to longer life expectancy too because people were healthier. Longer life expectancies led to falling death rates beginning between 1870 and 1920, which led to a higher rate of population growth. Despite Thomas Malthus’ prediction in 1798 that the rapidly increasing population would lead to a worldwide famine, the increased productivity of agriculture supplied enough to feed the growing population

A Significant Demographic Shift, or Rural-Urban Migration (probably a neutral effect) was another effect. When farming is done by hand, you need a lot of people and hands, but now that it is done by machines, there isn’t the need for so many people to work on the fields now. 

The people who no longer need to work in the fields can go to factories now, and these factories did basically everything else that was needed to finally sell to the market. 

Increased Food Production was one of the most significant impacts of the Agricultural Revolution. This allowed Britain to feed its rapidly growing population and become a major food producer.

Economic Growth also happened because of the revolution, as increased food production led to higher profits for farmers and related industries.

People generally farmed subsistence, but after the revolution, it shifted to growing cash crops.

Term: Cash Crop - A crop grown to be sold for profit rather than to feed the farm family and the livestock.

Although this economic shift benefited some farm families, it had negative impacts on rural social structure and ecological sustainability.

Significant Social Changes (probably a neutral effect) in the social structure of Britain happened because of this revolution. Traditional rural communities were transformed, and new forms of property ownership emerged.

BASICALLY, as machines took over the fields, out-of-work farmers went to urban areas looking for jobs and factories. The Second Agricultural Revolution induced (persuaded, convinced) waves of rural to urban migration. It also had far-reaching impacts on British society and the economy, and laid the foundation for the Industrial Revolution.

However, there are some negative effects of this agricultural revolution.

Environmental Degradation was caused because of the widespread adoption of new farming techniques. These techniques involved enclosure of common land and the use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides, which are bad for the environment.

Subsistence farmers used pesticides to protect their crops from pests and bugs. They used to use herb-based poisons, handpick insects off plants, breed strong varieties of crops, and rotate crops to control insects, all which did minimal damage to the environment. However, the use of chemicals to control pests and weeds and disease-causing organisms made crop losses decline dramatically. 

However, here’s the bad part. While some pesticides aren’t toxic to humans and non-target organisms, others are highly poisonous. Some pesticides do not break down in the environment, which leaves the pesticides there and makes it dangerous to people and wildlife many many years after it was used.

Even worse, some pests develop resistance against the pesticides, so farmers needed different pesticides. And so, they got these different pesticides with all these chemicals that will continue making the environment worse.

All fertilizers, whether natural (such as animal manure) or synthetic, may also have an impact on the environment.

When more fertilizer is applied than a plant can use, the result is nutrient pollution in which the excess nutrients seep down into groundwater or are carried into nearby waterways as runoff.

Term: Nutrient Pollution - The consequence of overuse of fertilizer. Occurs when excess nutrients seep down into groundwater or are carried into nearby waterways as runoff.

Term: Runoff - The flow of rain or irrigation water over land.

BASICALLY, if the plant can’t eat all the nutrients you give it, that extra nutrients is gonna be wasted. Have this happen a lot and a lot of times, and eventually you run out of nutrients in soil.

Many small-scale farmers were displaced as a result of the Revolution, as they were unable to compete with the larger and more efficient farmers that emerged (but hey, there’s factories amirite?)

Decreased Biodiversity happened because the Agricultural Revolution only really cared about a few crops that were high-yielding, which obviously ignored many other crops and removed some variety in food.

Many farm workers worked long hours in harsh conditions for very low pay during the Agricultural Revolution (huh, I guess sending them to the factories wasn’t the best decision).

Roles of Women Marginalized (made less significant)

Mechanization that led to greater farm productivity had a negative impact on farm women who specialized in making cheese.

The shift toward the factory production of cheese moved cheesemaking away from the farm women and to the men who ran the factories that collected and combined the milk of multiple farms to produce cheese.

Thus, individual farm women known for their cheese they produced, lost their role in the local economy (because the corporations , straight up villain). As household production of agricultural products declined, young women began to follow their male relatives to cities to find work in factories.

Rural areas and farming communities experience a population loss as increasing numbers of people migrate to urban areas looking for jobs. While this migration provided the necessary labor to keep the factories running, the rapid increase in the urban population affected the urban infrastructure, causing increased demand for water, sanitation problems, housing shortage, and an increasing gap between labor and management in terms of wealth and opportunity (basically more people = more of these things needed, and we didn’t have enough)

(A big one) Rural Social Changes

Imagine this situation:

Rural communities had subsistence farmers that raised a variety of crops of their own use, meaning that most of the family’s needs can be met with little need for cash. All members of the family contributed to the success of the farm according to their ability. The young may gather eggs, while the older ones milk the cows. Older female children may help with cooking, laundry, and preserving food for the winter.

This subsistence-type farm practice makes products that can be traded. For example, cheese made in the home can be traded for cloth at the general store. The store’s owner then sells the cheese to non-farm customers who come into the store to buy food.

However, farmers that grow cash crops generally sell them beyond local markets, and are gradually more and more dependent on cash to purchase items not produced on the farm.

This new dependence on cash negatively affected rural family structures and led to changes in the agrarian societies,

As farmers began to shift to crops that made the most surplus (most cash), the diversity of farm output declined as farmers focused on growing cereal crops such as corn, wheat, barley, and oats to sell in regional and global markets.

Now, our family farm changes their work to meet market demands. Older children begin to leave farms to work in surrounding towns and cities. Often, women found off-farm work to earn the cash needed to purchase necessities when crops failed. Changes in family structure also led to changes in farming society as farmers turned from cooperation to competition.

COOPERATION to COMPETITION.

Stronger and wealthier farmers purchased the smaller farmers of neighbors who struggled to make a profit. As farms were sold, families moved away from the rural area, reducing the rural population AND the number of commercial ventures (a dare to journey or travel to do something dangerous or unpleasant) in the farm villages.

Thus, the shift from subsistence farming to production of cash crops had a negative effect on the traditional family farm and the surrounding community.

Now you see, it’s a real mess up there. To help you navigate this mess, let’s break it down.

Factors That Drove the Goals of the Revolution:

Growing Populations

Urbanization

Industrialization

Trading

Advancements in the Second Agricultural Revolution:

Enclosure Movement 

Selective Breeding (picky)

New Crops

Improved Tools and Machinery:

Technology:

The Seed Drill

The Mechanical Reaper

The Steel Plow

The Tractor

Transportation:

The Railroad

Canals

Agrichemicals

I highly recommend you search up what the machines look like if you don’t know what they are. They WILL PROBABLY pop up on your test (and it’s also just making connections).

Effects of the Revolution:

Positive:

Better Diets

Longer Life Expectancy 

Increased Food Production

Economic Growth

Neutral (probably):

Demographic Shift (Rural to Urban Migration)

Significant Social Changes

Negative:

Environmental Degradation:

Pesticides

Fertilizers:

Nutrient Pollution

Runoff

Displacement of Small-Scale Farmers

Decreased Biodiversity

Harsh Working Conditions for Displaced Small-Scale

Social Changes for Women

Urban Infrastructure Changed (more like neutral)

Rural Social Changes

 Farmers (probably blame industrialization for this one)

5.5 - The Green Revolution

Now that we have covered the first two revolutions, there always gotta be a third one, which includes the Green Revolution.

Term: Green Revolution - A movement in the 1960-70s in which scientists developed new strains of high-yielding grain crops through the process of crossbreeding (produce by mating or hybridizing two different species, breeds, or varieties) (Heimler’s History Definition)

Term: Green Revolution - The diffusion of modern agricultural farming methods to developing countries after the mid-20th century. (Teacher’s Notes Definition)

Take your pick.

The Green Revolution could be said to start in the 1940s when scientist Norman Borlaug arrives in Mexico, and attempts to find a way to breed wheat that would resist stem rust fungus. The invention of the semi-dwarf wheat came, and remember he is in Mexico.

He shared his invention of this new seed, and in 1956, Mexico became self-sufficient due to this wheat, and in 1963 they had enough to export this wheat.

His invention was an insane success in Mexico, and he would do this same thing in Pakistan and India, and is basically the starter of the third agricultural revolution.

Norman Borlaug’s goal was to grow more food in the same space of land, and he achieved that just like the Green Revolution did. He knew that not everybody could just grow on more land. Basically, productivity over expansion was the idea.

Term: Crossbreeding (well what do you know): The mixing of different species of plants or animals in order to produce a hybrid version which had the best genetic characteristics of both.

The Green Revolution was characterized by the application of science to agriculture, and crossbreeding was a kind of genetic modification to seeds and animals.

Term: GMO - The process by which humans use engineering techniques to change the DNA of a seed.

Now. According to Heimler, students make the mistake of thinking that cross breeding leads to GMOS (Genetically Modified Organisms), which is WRONG.

The development of GMOS occurred later in the 90s to 00s, which is past the Green Revolution.
I honestly didn’t think about GMOS (maybe i’m dumb), but I guess DON’T assume that GMOS are linked with the Green Revolution. Anyways, back to the point.

These new hybrid seeds yielded far more crops than regular seeds, and that led to an incredible increase in agricultural productivity (more food :DDD).

You also need to know how the Green Revolution diffused too (bruh).

For the most part, many of these scientific discoveries were done in the United States, and then diffused hierarchically to periphery and semi-periphery states (periphery is a unit 4 topic, hope you remember :) ) such as India, Mexico, and Indonesia. Notice how these places were largely characterized by subsistence agriculture.

These places had a lot of people to feed, and as peripheral states they struggled to do so. Another revolution would really help them out.. Hmmmmmmmmmmm 💭 🤔

Of course, the topic doesn’t end here. Along with these new developments came the necessity to use more machines and chemicals that APHG students have to remember.

Hybridization (in more detail) resulted in higher yields, as plants and animals were bred to have superior characteristics, and were also resistant to various types of insects. They also grew faster, which allowed for double-cropping.

Note that hybridization is not the same thing as genetically modified organisms (GMOs). GMOs happen in a lab, with techniques like gene-splicing (you’re talking about DNA at this point).

Term: Double-Cropping - A farming method where you grow two harvests a year.

Term: Multicropping - A farming method where you grow three or more harvests a year.

Term: Seed Hybridization - The process of crossbreeding together two plants that have desirable characteristics.

Seed hybridization was done by choosing two plants with desirable traits, maybe one that was sweet and one that had good color, and plant them in the same field, and have them pollinate simply by the wind.

Synthetic Fertilizers were required in order to achieve such high crop yields.
This fertilizer was better than just garden dirt and animal poop, it was better. It was a chemical fertilizer.

Plants need nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium. They were critical elements to the health of a plant that was not understood until the 20th century. New seeds were needed, which led to synthetic fertilizers and irrigation.

Chemical Pesticides were very important, because newly-engineered crops were more vulnerable to destruction by pests.

Fun little fact. Some farmers (and especially Europe) grow plants that bugs like, and put them next to the actual crops that they are growing. This is so that once the bugs go for the crop they like, they won’t be going for the actual crops.

Increased Mechanization is just more machines in general being introduced and used to increase the farming efficiency, such as tractors, tillers, and grain carts.

Term: Irrigation - The artificial process of supplying water to crops to help them grow.

Irrigation projects included: Dams, piped water, water pumps, mechanical dikes. Intensified labor demands increased demands for mechanization worldwide, and irrigation was one of these things. 

The success would lead to industrial farming.

Term: Industrial farming - The mass production of agricultural products.

BASICALLY, Machinery, irrigation, and transportation made food more global. New machinery helped with planting and harvesting, reducing human labor. Irrigation methods changed as use of water became more efficient and sustainable, and transportation made it easier to get crops to the global market.
(cha cha to effects, slide to the right!)

The Green Revolution had some effects, and you want the good news first.

The first positive effect was a Higher Crop Yields, can you guess why 🤔
More food could be produced on the same amount of land, and so populations that were still developing were able to feed their people now and even had access to sell goods on the world market.

Remember Thomas Malthus with his “We’re gonna run out of food?” Yeah, no thanks.

(also more money 🤑)

Food was cheaper and made it available to more people who couldn’t really afford it before. The Green Revolution created a substantial solution to world hunger.

Efficient Uses of Agricultural Land is basically the simple fact of, “Because Earth does not have more land, we can’t grow more food unless we use our land more efficiently.” which is what we did by making more food from one plot of land than ever seen before.

Now for the bad news…

The Environment went through more trauma again, and the reason why is because of how so much extra food was made.

Farmers were encouraged to do double-cropping, which further exhausts and uses basically all the nutrients in the soil, making it useless or diminished for next year’s planting.

Additionally, increased use of chemicals meant that agricultural runoff could pollute freshwater sources (uh, oh).

Also, irrigation caused erosion. If the irrigation was too much, the good soil would be watered off and it would be terrible to lose good soil.

The Exclusion of Women (oh my dear goodness ).
In various developing societies that participated in the Green Revolution, many of them still held on to more traditional gender roles. Even though women performed a great deal of the agricultural labor, it was men who were trained and given decision-making power over this new method of farming, which further marginalized (make insignificant) the roles of women.

“It was the same old story. Men were out farming, and women were consigned to making everybody sandwiches” (Heimler said this, not me!!!!!!)

The Economic Consequences were also a terrible effect. New seeds owned and sold by large businesses and corporations meant that farmers lost their independence by being forced to purchase new seeds from these corporations year after year.

These seeds couldn’t really be planted again either, because these seeds have a scammy trick of reducing their crop yields every year that passed. So for farmers to maintain their crop yields, they would need to buy new seeds from these corporations every single year.

This also meant that farmers could no longer afford these seeds or any of the other technology required for that matter, and to make it even worse, each corporation developed their own pesticides and fertilizers that only worked with their own seeds (brutal).

Labor markets in less developed regions changed, and pushed people from rural to urban areas. People who are out of work are forced to work in factories to make money, just like the Second Agricultural Revolution. The availability of relatively cheap labor attracts multinational corporations to move their manufacturing to countries like India, China, and Vietnam.

BASICALLY, it gave us more food, but the environment was bad, and more farmers lost their independence to corporations and could not participate in the benefits of the Revolution.

(you’re almost at the end, we just gotta do one more thing)

Sub-Saharan Africa was one of the places where the Green Revolution saw little successes unlike Latin America and Asia. About 4% of arable land South of the Sahara is irrigated. Local weather patterns determine what can be grown, and thus the climate and weather needs to be cooperative. 

Also, many of the countries in Africa do not have proper infrastructure. You can’t modernize Africa, because they don’t have transportation such as railroads.

There are also way too many styles and cultures, and there is unfortunately not going to be a very agreed upon crop. Crops and diets differ a lot across the continent. The continent will need a dozen green revolutions to develop the right fertilizer, not just wheat and rice.

The Green Revolution gave us less diversity in food, but Africa has a high diversity, so it just doesn’t work. There would need to be a revolution for each of these regions in Africa for Africa to finally be able to prosper without abandoning their culture and diversity.

The soil is also very different in Africa. In the US, the soil is good and not that different across the Great Plains. However, the soil is very different in Africa.

Now… it’s a mess, so I organized everything into one big list for you for the Green Revolution :DDD Let’s make life easier next time? Okay? (NOT APHG)

Scroll to the next page cause it’s a mess if I leave it on this page.

Developments/Advancements

Hybridization (livestock)

Seed Hybridization

Synthetic Fertilizer

Chemical Pesticides

Increased Mechanization

Irrigation

Effects of the Green Revolution

Positive

Higher Crop Yields

Cheaper Food

More Efficient Use of Land

Negative

The Environment (you already know…)

Double-Cropping/Multicropping

Chemicals

Pollution

Erosion

The Exclusion of Women

Economic Consequences (you gotta read it to understand it)

Less Farmer Independence

Products Were “Scammy”

Farmers Couldn’t Afford Seeds

Labor Markets Changed

Rural-to-Urban Migration (this is not necessarily a bad thing)

Cheap Labor

5.6 - Agricultural Production Regions

This topic is not history anymore, we’re back to concepts.

Term: Agricultural Production Regions - Specific areas where agricultural practices are concentrated, influenced by factors like climate, soil type, and local culture.

We know about the two types of agriculture. Subsistence, and commercial agriculture.

You can remember that subsistence = Existence (thanks heimler :D)

Subsistence farms often grow a variety of crops and animals so as to round out the diet of the family eating the produce.

(fiveable copypasta, but it tells a good story)

For example, in rural Nepal, a family of five relies on their small plot of land to grow rice, wheat, and vegetables. They have a few goats and chickens, which provide milk and eggs for the family. The family works hard to grow enough food to feed themselves and to have a little left over to sell at the local market. They do not have access to irrigation, so they rely on the monsoon rains (you remember what this is, right?) to water their crops. They also use traditional farming techniques, such as terracing (you also remember what this is, right?) and composting, to make the most of their limited resources. The family’s farm provides them with a basic level of food security, but they do not have the resources to diversify their crops or to expand their farm.

(ok i know this is out of nowhere but stay with me)

If you pull up a map of subsistence and commercial farming, and another map of wealthy and impoverished countries, you may notice how the spatial distribution between subsistence and commercial farming is incredibly similar to the spatial distribution between wealthy and impoverished countries.

This should be easy to understand. SInce wealthy countries have a lot of food due to the many revolutions (ty for adding another 20 pages ) and technology they have, they have enough food and they don’t need their whole population to work. However, more poor countries don’t have this technology and they will have to grow their own food because the market doesn’t really have enough for everyone.

BASICALLY, subsistence agriculture is mainly practiced in peripheral or developing countries while commercial agriculture is mainly produced in core and developed countries.

Now commercial agriculture does a little thing called:

Term: Monocropping (or commodity dependency) - The act of growing only a single crop intended for sale.

Commercial farming is distinguished from small-scale or subsistence farming, in which farmers grow crops or raise livestock primarily for their own consumption or for sale to local markets. Commercial farmers often operate on a larger scale and may sell their products to markets both within and outside their local region.

Commercial farming can have both positive and negative impacts on the environment, local communities, and the global food system. On one hand, it helps increase food production and contributes to the economy. However, on the other hand it can lead to environmental degradation, such as soil erosion and water pollution, and may contribute to the displacement of small farmers in favor of larger, more mechanized operations.

(another fiveable copypasta, which tells a good story)

For example, the US has a large almond farm in California, a lucrative (profitable) cash crop. The farm has access to irrigation and uses advanced techniques, such as precision farming (precisely farming, no way!) and pest control, to maximize yield. The farm also has a team of workers who are responsible for plating, pruning, and harvesting the trees. The almonds are then packaged and shipped to markets around the world. The farm generates a significant profit, which is used to reinvest in the business and to pay the workers. The farm’s owners also have the resources to diversify their crops and to invest in new ventures, such as processing and marketing.

Whereas subsistence farms grow a variety of different foods, commercial agriculture tends to specialize in monocropping. Good examples of this would be a cash crop, and some more significant ones are wheat and corn.

Remember monoculture? Monoculture is the act of growing a single crop over a large area, and monocropping is simply a subtype of it (which checks out). However, apparently Heimler says that you can get the two mixed up and think they are the same.. Which they’re not.

(so heimler goes on a rant and i tried to understand it and maybe im dumb but i had to search it up so here is the difference:)

The difference between monocropping and monoculture is that monocropping is the act of growing the SAME crop YEAR after YEAR, while monoculture is JUST the act of growing the same crop, nothing about year after year. It’s like an adjective.
(if you don’t get it, just search up, “difference between monocropping and monoculture”)

(ok so we know what subsistence, commercial, intensive, and extensive agriculture is, so let’s just move on to the next subtopic, which is comparing those different types of agriculture)\

There is subsistence and commercial agriculture, there is also intensive and extensive agriculture.

There is intensive subsistence agriculture, commercial intensive agriculture, subsistence extensive agriculture, and commercial extensive agriculture.

Factors that influence farmers:
cost of land
In urban places, land gets more pricey.

Labor

capital

Increase intensity on subsistence farmers.
Economics are a major factor pushing subsistence farmers.
Grow local demand, or global demand.

For subsistence, farmers' space is being consumed by the growing population. The entire world’s population is growing, but the problem here is that subsistence farmers usually have extensive farms, so now their land is being encroached (invaded) upon, which means there may not be enough food for other people.

The beef industry has to use intensive and extensive farming techniques.

For example, Wyoming grows the cows extensively, where they are allowed to roam on large plots of land to grow and fatten up. Once they mature, they go into intensive ranching and are being prepared to get sent to the slaughter house.

Around the world, even in LDCs, the demand for meat is exponentially growing, so farmers have to do some terrible things to the animals to meet these demands. Animals are kept in small places and fed grains and raised on feedlots. 

The beef industry is turning into an intensive industry. Now, they put many many cows into one place. They are fed corn and water in order to fatten them up. 

Term: Bid Rent Curve - A graph to show how much each activity is willing to bid or rent the land as it relates to distance to the market.

In AP Human Geography, we usually ask why things are spatially placed or arranged where they are, and the bid rent curve helps us with this question regarding different types of agriculture.

The basic idea is that the demand and price for land decreases the further away it is from a central business district, or urban centers like cities.

Now at this point, I would like for you to search up, “Bid Rent Curve” and look at the graph and dissect it. There are some cool visual examples too, like Heimler’s History at 3:37

I’m going to refer to a picture that has the graph on the right side, and below the graph are three different colored circles.

(this must be very unique for everyone, because I don’t think there has been a more visual thing in APHG other than this, i love bid-rent now )

Center Circle (RETAIL): This is where the urban center is with the shops, markets, and all that is at. This is where most of the buying and selling is located.

Second Circle (MANUFACTURING): This is where the manufacturing usually happens.

Let’s review. The center circle is where stuff gets sold, and the second circle is where stuff gets made.

Outer Circle (RESIDENTIAL): This is where most people live.

REMEMBER SML (but remembering retail, manufacturing, and residential can’t be that bad)

S - Sell
M - Make
L - Live

To explain these relationships, we have to look at the graph more closely. Notice how the y axis represents rent per acre, and the x axis represents distance.

We also have to understand once again that if we are closer to the market and urban centers, the land price goes up. If we are farther from the market and urban centers, the land price goes down. The price goes up because being closer to urban centers allows you to have more people to sell to, and vice versa.

People who live closer to the markets are industries and big businesses that have a lot of customers, and also generally do intensive and commercial agriculture, while people who live farther just want to live, feed themselves, and usually do extensive and subsistence agriculture.

BASICALLY, the Bid-Rent Model explains the spatial organization of agricultural regions because different kinds of production require different proximity to the central business district, or urban centers.

DOUBLE BASICALLY, the price determines how the farmer uses the land.

READDDD TISSSSSSSSSSS
(ok so central business districts are basically urban centers or markets to sell and buy things, but this term is really important cuz you will see it a lot. Just correlate it with urban centers or markets and you’ll be fine)

Term: The commercial and business center of a city, characterized by a high concentration of retail shops, offices, and cultural institutions. This area typically has the highest land values, and is a hub for transportation and economic activity, influencing urban development patterns and land use. 

For land near the center, the farmer will buy less land since it is expensive, and will use intensive practices to get the absolute max out of it, and then sell it.

If the land is cheap, the farmer is going to buy more of the land and thus engage in more extensive practices.

If you are a dairy farmer, you would want to be closer to the center, because accounting for distance too, the milk can get to your customers quickly compared to the outer circles.

You could do potato farming and cattle ranching in the outer circles because potatoes and all that are not as perishable as milk, and they can afford to transport their goods in exchange for the lower prices on land.

MEGA BASICALLY, commerce is in the center, with more people to work with and vice versa. Industries are farther from the urban centers so they get more land for lower price, but too low to the point of being removed from the marketplace. Residentials don’t care as much about the market, but more about how much they can buy for the commuting distance there. The poor reside closer to the city to get to their jobs easily. Assumptions of the theory is that the land is featureless and has no physical land features, and cost of rent increases directly with the distance, and most centers for employment are located in the urban center while the rest is spread throughout the metropolitan area.

(YOURE HALFWAY, it would be terrible if there was more…)

5.7 - Spatial Organization of Agriculture

This topic talks about how economics impacted the modern spatial distribution of agriculture.

The spatial organization of agriculture refers to the way that agricultural activities are distributed and organized across a particular area or region. There are several factors that can influence the spatial organization of agriculture:

The availability of natural resources such as fertile land, water, and sunlight influences where agriculture is practiced. Areas such as the Fertile Crescent grew many crops due to the simple fact that they had access to fertile land, water, and sunlight.

The availability of transportation and infrastructure such as roads, ports, and markets also influence the spatial organization of agriculture. People will need a way to transport their goods and get things back to them, and so access to infrastructure is important. 

Economic Factors such as the cost of land, labor, and inputs can also influence the spatial organization of agriculture. People may buy cheap land without amazing soil so that they can do ranching, or people buy more expensive land closer to the CBD because their products are more perishable. 

Social and Cultural Factors such as traditions and preferences, can also influence the spatial organization of agriculture. For example, certain regions may have a tradition of growing certain crops or raising certain animals, which can shape the local agricultural landscape. There would be a decrease of pig farms in places where their religion does not allow the consumption of pig.

The first major way that economics has affected the spatial distribution of agriculture is the disappearance of family farms.

Term: Family Farm - A small farm that is majority owned by a family which sells its goods on the market.

It is exactly what it sounds like. One generation works a plot of land and offers its produce to the world, then passes the work on to the next generation to do the virtuous work of feeding the population.

However, there is a new way of farming now, and that is corporate farming or agribusiness.

Term: Agribusiness - A large corporation that deals in the agricultural sector.

Today, many farms are run by people who do not live on the land, and use machines. Corporate farming has caused a shift in agricultural practices, from small-scale family farms to large-scale corporate farms. This creates complex commodity chains, and technology has increased the carrying capacity. It changes the agricultural labor force.

Complex machines used to plant and harvest can cover more land cheaply, and herbicides, pesticides, and fertilizers are being used intensively, which increase crop yields. 

All the food brought to the market has increased due to our three revolutions. However, this causes family farms and smaller scale farms to slowly become irrelevant and disappear. Farmers who can no longer compete with the market will have to move to somewhere else to make money, via rural-to-urban migration. Families will also have to move to urban cities and centers to make money too, as they can’t compete with the big markets.

MDc subsistence farmers cannot compete with agribusinesses, and many subsistence farmers lose their land and move to work for agribusiness enterprises (a business or company).

For example, a multinational corporation owns and operates a series of industrial-scale livestock farms in the US. The farm raises chickens, pigs, and cows for meat, milk, and eggs. The animals are housed in large, climate-controlled buildings and are fed a specialized diet of grains and supplements. The farms use mechanization and automation to reduce labor costs and increase efficiency. The animals are slaughtered at a central processing facility and the meat is packaged and shipped to markets around the world. The corporation also owns its own transportation and distribution network, allowing to it control every aspect of the production and distribution process. The corporation generates significant profits from the sale of its products and has the resources to invest in new technologies and techniques to increase production.

(agribusiness business now, it's now our business)

Corporations use a commodity chain now, to go from the agricultural to the markets. For example, a French Fry from McDonalds is first produced using potatoes, processed to be peeled and cut and frozen, distributed in trucks or whatever, sent to the retailer, and then sent to you, the customer.

Term: Commodity Chain - A series of steps used by companies to create and sell a product.

Term: Commodity - Any good that can be bought or sold on the market.

A commodity chain is what gives something value. It costs money to produce the potatoes, process it, distribute it, and retail it. The potato becomes more valuable after each step of the commodity chain.

Term: Complex Commodity Chain - The networks of production and distribution that connect raw materials to final consumer goods. These chains encompass (surround, have) multiple stages, including sourcing, manufacturing, and transportation, often spanning across different countries and regions.

(complex commodity chain and commodity chains have basically no difference)

In a (complex) commodity chain, production and consumption are linked through a series of processes and relationships. For example, raw materials are extracted or harvested and then transformed into intermediate products, which are then assembled into finished products. These finished products are then distributed to wholesalers or retailers, who sell them to consumers.

Consumers, in turn, play a role in the production process by purchasing the products, which generates demand and drives the need for more production. This creates a cycle of production and consumption that is interconnected (linked, connected) and interdependent (of two or more things dependent on each other). The consumers rely on the corporations to make stuff, and the corporations rely on consumers to buy stuff.

Agribusinesses often control most steps of the food production process (vertical integration), which allows them to have more control over cost. 

Agribusinesses also benefit over the fact that they are the dependent companies to make the food (Monsanto), and as such the costs to make food should decrease per unit of output. it enables an increase in scale, encouraging buying supplies in bulk. Companies also get to sell and have a base to set the price.

For example, if you were to sell paper plates to Walmart before Thanksgiving, Walmart could deny you if you do not downmark your prices which may cause you to lose money. However, denying to sell to Walmart would make your situation worse because they are the only buyers. They kind of control everything.

Large-scale agribusiness money comes from globalization. Examples would be bananas from Ecuador, coffee from Brazil, chocolate from Switzerland, or apples from honduras.

Many of the intensive farms (especially ones owned by agribusinesses) have processing plants located away from large cities to lower labor costs. Agribusinesses hire immigrant workers a lot because they are willing to work for low wages.

Traditionally, companies are located near processing facilities in rural areas so that they can get low labor costs and land costs. However, facilities today are located closer to urban areas, but of course are still mindful of the costs. They move closer to urban areas so the transportation is better, and storage techniques become more efficient.

Corporations also use economies of scale and carrying capacity to maximize their profits.

Term: Economies of Scale (economics of scale) - The financial benefits of mass production. The more commodities produced, the cheaper they are to make, and the greater the profit.

This is the idea of supply and demand. If there is more supply, and demand stays the same, then the item will be less cheaper. If there is less supply, and demand stays the same, then the item will be more expensive. 

As commercial farms have implemented more modern technology like improved fertilizers and pesticides, new types of seeds, and mechanical equipment in their operations, farmers have been able to produce higher yields for consumption.

This means their profit has increased while the cost of production went down. In turn, the carrying capacity, the amount of people the Earth can support, has gone up.

Technology has had a significant impact on economies in agriculture and carrying capacity. In agriculture, technology has allowed for increased productivity. With more food, there is going to be cheaper food. 

Term: Carrying Capacity - The amount of people the Earth can support.

In 1962, one farmer fed an average of 26 people. Now, the average is 155 people. All the farming achievements are because of our revolutions, which one again mechanized everything and made things faster. Also, everyone back then was basically a farmer. Now, there are not as many people who are farmers.

(clean cut to the rest of stuff)

Advances in refrigeration created cool chains, which are transportation networks that keep food cool.

Term: Cool Chain - A temperature-controlled supply chain that involves the storage, transportation, and distribution of perishable goods. 

Intensive use of fertilizers, herbicides, and pesticides over large lots of land that has increased production. There are some drawbacks however, such as a reduced amount of time for land to recover, loss of wetlands, rainforests, and loss of biodiversity and water resources. Pollution from fertilizers, pesticides, and herbicides threatens ecosystems. 

BASICALLY, everything boils down to more food because of machines, but environmental degradation due to fertilizers and pesticides. The ideas of the revolution and the effects is basically what we’re covering but in more detail.