The Anthropological Study of Religion

Overview of the Anthropological Study of Religion

Introduction to the Study of Religion

  • Core Human Questions: Humans inherently question various aspects of existence, including the nature of themselves and the world around them.

  • Role of Religion: The answers to these existential questions are often found within the realms of religious beliefs and practices.

  • Scope of the Book: This book aims to investigate a wide array of religious lives across different human communities from an anthropological viewpoint.

Anthropological Perspective

  • Definition: The anthropological perspective encompasses various approaches and theorizations which will be elaborated upon in this book.

    • It involves comparative studies of human societies, both contemporary and historical, including industrial and tribal.

  • Focus on Lesser-Known Religions: Unlike many textbooks that concentrate solely on major world religions (Judaism, Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism), this book expands its content to include lesser-known religious systems, especially those practiced in small-scale, traditional contexts.

  • Celebration of Diversity: The study seeks to identify commonalities among diverse religious systems while also appreciating their unique characteristics.

  • Anthropological Definition of Religion: Rather than merely describing religious systems, the focus will be on core topics identified in anthropological literature surrounding religion.

Holistic Approach in Anthropology

Holistic Study Defined

  • Holism in Anthropology: Holism refers to studying societies as integrated wholes, taking into account political, legal, economic, ethical, and theological influences on practices like marriage and religion.

  • Importance of Contextual Study: Understanding requires digging into various societal aspects, viewing them in a network rather than isolation.

Four Fields of Anthropology

  • Physical Anthropology: Studies human biology and evolution, genetics, evolutionary theory, and the biology of primates (including monkeys, apes, and humans).

  • Archaeology: Focuses on societies known only from their material remains, providing insights into their cultural and possibly religious expressions through artifacts.

  • Linguistic Anthropology: Examines language as a key feature of humanity, integral to expressing religious practices and beliefs through myths, narratives, and recitations.

  • Cultural Anthropology: Centers on contemporary societies, covering social organization, economics, politics, marriage, family life, and more, including religion as a major topic.

Methodological Concerns

  • Long-term Field Studies: Anthropologists often engage in extended observational studies within communities, utilizing participant observation as a method to achieve deeper understanding.

  • Small-scale Societies: Initial anthropological studies often focused on small communities (e.g., Trobriand Islanders, Navaho, Yanomamö).

  • Terminological Sensitivity: The terms “primitive” and “great” religions are avoided due to their pejorative implications; instead, “small-scale” and “world’s great religions” are used.

Concepts and Frameworks in Anthropology

Exploration of Universals and Variability

  • Questions of Universality: Anthropologists question whether certain characteristics (like marriage) are found across cultures and what variations exist.

  • Descriptive Ethnographies: Through ethnographic work, anthropologists gather and analyze descriptions from diverse human societies to build upon these understandings.

Culture Areas

  • Definition of Culture Areas: Geographical zones where societies share numerous cultural traits stemming from environmental challenges and solutions.

  • Significance of Culture Areas: By categorizing cultures, anthropologists can observe patterns, subsistence strategies, and similarities in religious practices. For instance:

    • California Culture Area: Communities that exploit acorns, leading to the establishment of permanent settlements.

    • Cultural Examples: Tables showcasing different societies and their subsistence strategies include groups such as the Inuit, Haida, Maya, and others, demonstrating their unique ways of life.

Food-getting Strategies

Overview of Strategies

  • Foragers: Collecting food without domestication (e.g., San, Murngin).

  • Pastoralists: Animals are the primary livelihood (e.g., Nuer, Maasai).

  • Horticulturalists: Small-scale farming occurs without advanced technologies (e.g., Shoshoni, Yanomamö).

  • Intensive Agriculturalists: Advanced farming technology leads to high population density and complexity (e.g., Aztec, Amish).

The Fore of New Guinea: An Ethnographic Case Study

Significance of the Fore Study

  • Cultural Context: The Fore, about 14,000 horticulturalists in eastern New Guinea, provides insight into health, rituals, and anthropological methodology.

Kuru Disease and Cultural Practices

  • Illness Background: Kuru, characterized by neurological symptoms, primarily afflicted women and children due to cultural practices involving cannibalism as an end-of-life ritual.

    • Medical Investigation: It was discovered that kuru was transmitted via prions, exacerbated by the social structure that forced women and children to consume high-risk brain tissue during funerary rituals.

  • Cultural Misunderstandings: The Fore attributed the cause of kuru to sorcery rather than scientific explanations, indicating a clash between medical and cultural understandings of health.

Social Implications of Kuru

  • Impact on Gender Dynamics: The epidemic of kuru created significant shifts in household roles and marriage dynamics, affecting men who lost wives and altering family structures.

Holism in Cultural Interpretation

Insider vs. Outsider Perspectives

  • Etic Perspective: Observations made from an external viewpoint, which can reveal patterns often unnoticed by insiders.

  • Emic Perspective: The belief systems and interpretations held by the subjects of study, crucial for accurately understanding cultural practices.

Cultural Relativism and Ethnocentrism

  • Ethnocentrism Defined: The tendency to view one’s own culture as superior, often leading to misinterpretations of other belief systems.

  • Cultural Relativism: A position where anthropologists strive to understand cultural practices within their context without judgment, aiming for an objective description of the beliefs.

The Nature of Culture

Definition and Characteristics

  • Culture Defined by Tylor: “Culture is that complex whole, which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, customs, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society.”

  • Transmission of Culture: Culture is learned and shared across generations, influencing behaviors ranging from rituals to everyday practices.

Importance of Symbols in Culture

  • Symbolism in Religion: Critical for understanding cultural practices and beliefs, with symbols providing deeper meaning and context to religious expressions.

The Anthropological Study of Religion

Defining Religion

  • Challenges of Defining Religion: Avoiding ethnocentric definitions, focusing on an operant definition that captures observable and measurable cultural phenomena.

Classifications of Definitions

  • Analytic Definitions: Focus on how religion is expressed in various cultures.

  • Functional Definitions: Explore the societal roles religion plays.

  • Essentialist Definitions: Concentrate on intrinsic qualities of religion.

Theoretical Approaches to Religion

  • Evolutionary Approach: Investigates how religions may have evolved from primitive to complex forms, aiming to understand the natural progression of belief systems.

  • Marxist Approach: Critiques religion as a tool used by those in power to maintain social order and divert attention from exploitation.

  • Functional Approach: Focuses on what religion accomplishes within society, such as cohesion and meaning-making.

  • Interpretive Approach: Investigates the meanings embedded within culture and symbols, emphasizing understanding over causation.

  • Psychosocial Approach: Explores the interplay between culture and individual psychology, often relating childhood experiences to religious perceptions.

Biological Foundations

  • Cognitive Aspects of Religion: Examines how cognitive processes influence religious beliefs and experiences, arguing for a biological overview of the origins of religious thought.

Conclusion to the Discussion of Religion

  • Moving Towards Understanding: Emphasizes the importance of cultural relativism over ethnocentrism in studying religion to appreciate the beliefs of different societies.

  • Methodological Agnosticism in Anthropology: Recognizes the limitations of understanding the supernatural and strives for observation and analysis without injecting bias or personal beliefs.

Summary of Key Concepts

  • Anthropology is a holistic discipline that examines societies through a lens encompassing all aspects of life, including religion, with a particular focus on both small-scale and world religions.

  • The insights gained from studying the Fore illustrate the interconnectedness of cultural practices, health, and societal structures, reinforcing the relevance of a holistic, participatory methodology in anthropology.