Note
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AP Biology Notes (Q5)
Kingdom Plantae
a. Multicellular with organelles including chloroplasts and cells walls
b. Nutrients are acquired by photosynthesis (autotrophic)
Kingdom Protista
a. Protists are single celled organisms
b. Move by cilia, flagella, or by amoeboid mechanisms
c. There is usually no cell wall, some forms may have a cell wall
d. May have chloroplasts
e. Nutrients are acquired by photosynthesis, ingestion of other organisms, or both (autotrophic and heterotrophic).
Kingdom Fungi
a. Fungi are multicellular (except yeast, which are unicellular), with a cell wall but no chloroplasts
b. Contain filamentous structures called for growth
c. Can be haploid and/or diploid (some have stages for both).
d. Can reproduce asexually
C. Domain system
Developed in 1990 by Carl Woese and places prokaryotes into 2 domains. Domains are more inclusive than kingdoms.
Domain Bacteria
a. Kingdom Monera
Domain Archaea
a. Kingdom Monera
Domain Eukarya
a. Kingdom Protista
b. Kingdom Fungi
c. Kingdom Plantae
d. Kingdom Animalia
II. Evolutionary Patterns of Animals
A. Body Plans of Animals
Asymmetry
a. Phylum Porifera
-represent sponges
-lack true tissue
-no nervous, digestive, or circulatory systems
-sessile
Radial symmetry
a. organisms have a top (dorsal) and bottom (ventral) but no left or right
b. Phylum cnidaria
-represent hydra, jellyfish, and sea anemones
-Echinodermata (se urchins, complex) a typically circular shape that can be broken into two
Bilateral symmetry
a. Organism has dorsal, ventral, anterior (head), posterior (tail)
b. Phylum’s include:
-Platyhelminths (flatworms)
-Rotifera (rotifers)
-Nematoda (nematodes)
-Annelida (segmented worms)
-Mollusca (clams, snails)
-Arthropoda (crustaceans, insects, spiders)
-Chordata (vertebrates)
c. Cephalization
-All bilateral organisms have this process
-Anterior region of organism contains sensory paraphernalia
-This allowed for the development of a centra; nervous system (a brain and nerve cord)
I. Vascular Plant Statistics
A. Vascular Plants Make Up A approx. 90% Of Plant Species
1. Primarily comprised of angiosperms (huge clade, seeds, all flowering plants)
B. Increasing human pop^n need for food, fuel, fiber, medicine, lumber, and paper
II. Vascular Plant Basic Hierarchy
A. The evolution two organ systems, root system and shoot system (stem and leaves).
B. Root system
1. Multicellular organ that anchors vascular plants in the soil, absorbs minerals and water
2. Most eudicots (“true dicots”) consists of one main root, a taproots
3. Taproots give rise to lateral roots
4. The absorption of water and minerals takes place near the the tip of the roots
C. Shoot System
1. Stems
a. An organ consisting of alternating systems of nodes (the points where leaves attach)
b. Internodes - Stem segments between nodes
2. Leaves
a. The main photosynthetic organ
b. Parts of most leaves: Flattened blade, a stak, the petiole (joins leaf to stem) and ___
D. Plant Tissue Types
Dermal tissue
a. Epidermal cells arise from protoderm and cover primary parts
b. Guard cells, trichomes, and root hairs are specialized epidermal cells used for absorption and protection
Ground Tissue
a. Parenchyma Cells - Most abundant and unspecialized
b. Collenchyma cells - Flexible and provide support for plant organs
c. Sclerenchyma Cells - Tough, thick walls, divided into long slender fibers
Vascular Tissue
a. Xylem main waiter conducting tissue from roots to shoots
-Xylem works up
b. Primary xylem is derived from procambium, secondary xylem formed from vascular cambium
c. Phloem is the principal food carrying tissue from leaves to roots
-Phloem works DOWN
I. Plant Nutrients
A. Major source of plant nutrition is fixation of atmospheric CO2 into simple sugars
B. Quantities Of Plant Nutrients
1. Macronutrients - Large quantities
a. Carbon, Oxygen, Hydrogen, Nitrogen, Potassium, Calcium, Phosphorus, Magnesium and Sulfur
2. Micronutrients - Small quantities
a. Chlorine, Iron, Manganese, Zinc, Boron, Copper, and Molybdenum
II. Soil
A. Soil Composition
1. A mixture of sand, rocks, clay, silt, humus, minerals, organic matter, and organisms
2. Approx. half of the total volume is occupied by spaces or pores
3. Cultivated communities are more expressed to erosion and must be supplied with nutrients
4. Other solutions to nutrient loss
a. Crop rotation
b. Planting legumes with nitrogen-fixing bacteria
5. Major minerals loss that need replacement
a. Nitrogen
b. Phosphorus
c. Potassium
III. Global Balance Upset
A. CO2 levels are steadily rising
B. As CO2 increase less nitrogen and other macromolecules can be found in plant leaves
C. The loss of macromolecules per leaf causes herbivores to consume greater quantities of biomass to maintain energy levels
IV. Unique Strategies For Obtaining Nutrients
A. Nitrogen Fixation
1. Plants need ammonia (NH3) to build amino acids
2. Most nitrogen in the atmosphere, as N2 which plants can not process directly
3. Bacteria live in close association with plant roots and can “fix” atmosphere nitrogen to a usable form for plants
4. Some plants obtain nitrogen directly from other organisms by carnivorous methods
5. Symbiotic relationships
I. Water and Nutrient Movement
A. Water and minerals move upward through the xylem
1. Water enters the roots
2. Transported through the xylem by multiple factors
3. Aquaporins enhance the transport of water at the cellular level and aids in bulk water transport
4. Because water molecules are cohesive to each other, transpiration through the stomata exerts most of the pulling force that moves water up a plant
5. Water potential combining a plant’s pressure potential and its solute potential
Ψ = ΨS + ΨP
6. Water will move from a solution with high water potential to a solution with lower water potential
II. Transpiration
A. Loss of water through the plant leaf
B. Xylem Sap - Water and dissolved inorganic ions that ALWAYS flow from the roots of the plant TO the leaves
C. Guttation - Xylem sap that can be found as droplets on leaves, main result or root pressure
D. Root Pressure - Forcing of water up the xylem as a result of water entering the root system
E. Cohesion Tension Model
1. Water taken up by the root system of the plant (transpiration)
2. Cohesion of water molecules to each other and cell wall begins ascent
3. Water is forced up based on the water potential gradient
4. As more water leaves the plant leaf through transcription, the water potential becomes more negative (known a tension) driving even more xylem sap up the plant
F. Regulation Of Transcription
Guard cells - Open and close the stomata of the cell, which changes the amount of gas exchange and water loss
III. Translocation
A. Transport food (Phloem sap) in the plant through phloem
B. Sink-Source Model
1. Source cell - Cell that produces sucrose through photosynthesis these are mesophyll cells, which are found in leaf
2. Sink Cell - Cell that will consume sugar, these being roots, stems, and down the phloem
3. Sugar from the source is loaded into the sieve tube members transported down the phloem
4. Phloem sap will reach the sink cells where sucrose will be transported
IV. Water and Nutrient Absorption
A. Most of a plant’s absorbed water enters by root hairs
B. Plasma membranes of root-hair cells contain protein transport channels pump specific ions against large concentration gradients
C. Root pressure causes the movement of water into the plant
V. Factors That Contribute To Movement
A. Tensile strength of a water column varies inversely with common diameter
B. The formation of air bubbles cause movement failure
C. More than 90% of water taken taken in by roots is ultimately lost to the atmosphere
D. Stromata opens and closes due to changes in guard-cell turgor pressure from uptake of potassium (k)
E. Other factors controlling the stomata’s opening and closing:
__________
__________
__________
__________
__________
F. Evolved mechanisms to prevent water loss:
Dormancy during dry periods
Deci __
Thick hard leaves
The presence of trichomes (hair like projections)
G. Oxygen deprivation is a significant problem for plants in flooded areas, moving water brings in oxygen
IV. Transport of dissolved sugars and hormones
A. Takes place in the phloem
B. Phloem transport is down
I. Plant response to light
A. Phytochromes
1. Def: Nondirectional light triggered development
2. Triggered by red photoreceptors
3. Light receptors involved in triggering seed germination, shoot elongation, and plant spacing
B. Phototropism
1. Plants response to length of a day and night (circadian rhythm)
2. Directional growth toward the sources of light
3. Stems are positively phototropic, roots are negatively phototropic
4. Short day (long-night) plant
a. requires a longer amount of darkness to bloom
b. this plant will bloom when the amount of darkness exceeds the critical night length
5. Long-day (that-night) plant
a. requires a shorter amount of darkness to bloom
b. this plant will bloom when the amount of darkness is less than the critical night length
II. Plants respond to gravity
A. Gravitropism
1. Response of a plant to the earth’s gravitational field
III. Plants response to touch
A. Thigmotropism and Thigmotactic
a. Thigmotropism is directional growth due to her contact with another object
b. Thigmotactic responses are also growth due to contact but the direction of the growth is independent of the contact
B. Turgor Movement
Some plant movement results from turgor pressure imitated by touch
IV. Plant response to water and temperature
A. Dormancy provides survival under harsh conditions
B. Environmental signals trigger both the stent and end of dormancy
C. Some plants are able to stone ice crystals to undergo deep supercooling
V. Plant hormones
A. Auxins
1. First plant hormone identified
2. Increases plasticity of plant cell walls and stem elongation
3. Helps plant bend toward light
B. Cytokines
1. Stimulate plant cell division and differentiation in combination with Auxins to promote growth of lateral buds into branches, inhibiting now lateral roots
C. Gibberellins
1. Formed in apical portion of stems and effect stem elongation
D. Brassinosteroids
1. Exhibit a broad range of effects such as growth and reproduction
E. Oligosaccharins
1. Signaling molecules when pathogens invade
2. Signal defense responses to inhibit auxin-stimulated stem growth
F. Ethylene
1. Plays a major role in stimulating fruit development
G. Abscisic acid
1. Made in mature green leaves and fruits
2. Suppresses growth of dormant lateral buds, seed dormancy and stomata control
3. Acid levels rise when plants are under stress
I. Mammalian Digestive System
A. Oral cavity (Only carbohydrates are broken down)
1. Mouth - Secretes salivary amylase which breaks down starch
2. Chewing - Mechanical digestion occurs
3. Bolus - Ball of food is formed
4. Pharynx
a. Epiglottis - Structure at back of throat prevents food from entering the windpipe or trachea
5. Esophagus - Food tube that conducts bolus down to the stomach
a. Smooth muscle surrounding the esophagus contractions called peristalsis moves the bolus
B. Stomach (only protein is broken down)
1. Gastric juice - a digestive fluid with a PH pf about 2 aids in digestion
2. Pepsin - a protease secreted in an inactive form called pepsinogen, until food is present in the stomach
3. Acid chyme - food that is processed in the stomach
C. Small Intestine and Accessory Organs (all 3 macromolecules are broken down)
1. Organ that digest most food and absorbs it into the blood
2. Duodenum - first part of the small intestine where digestion takes place
3. Pancreatic enzymes
a. sent to small intestine to aid in digestion
b. the enzymes are protease, amylase, and lipase
4. Bile from the liver (stored in gall bladder) emulsifies (opens up the fat for lipase to break it down)
5. Fat is broken down for the first time in the small intestine
6. Microvilli of the small intestine increases the surface area allowing for absorption of nutrients
D. Large Intestine Or Colon (NO Digestion)
1. Main purpose is for reaborption of water